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HyGIE/NE 


WITH 


Anatomy  and   Physiology 


JOSEPH   F.  EDWARDS,  M.D. 


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EDWARDS' 

HYGIENE 


WITH 


ANATOMY    AND     PHYSIOLOGY 


BEING    AN    AMPLIFICATION   OF 


EDWARDS'  CATECHISM   OF  HYGIENE 


BY 

JOSEPH  F.  EDWARDS,  A.M.,  M.D. 

Member  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  Pennsylvania ;  Member  of  the 

American  Public  Health  Association;  Foreign  Associate  Member 

of  the  French  Society  of  Hygiene;  Fellow  of  the   College  of 

Physicians  of  Philadelphia ;  Member  of  the  Philadelphia 

County  Medical  Society ;   Editor  of  "  The  Annals 

of  Hygiene,"  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 


Sntenoeo  for  Scbools  ano  aeneral  IReaoitv 


PUBLISHED    BY 

EDWARD  P.  SLEVIN 
28   BAKCLAY   STREET,   NEW  YORK 


Copyright,  1894, 
EDWARD  P.  SLEVIN 


PREFACE. 


Hygiene  is  generally  defined  as  ' '  the  prevention 
of  disease :  as  synonymous  with  pure  air,  pure  water, 
and  pure  food." 

I  go  much  further  and  define  Hygiene  as  a  science 
that  gives  health  and  contentment  to  all  who  follow 
its  rules.  Hence,  every  human  being  should  learn 
these  rules. 

Throughout  this  book  I  have  used  simple  language, 
avoiding  technical  terms,  where  possible.  Anatomy 
and  Physiology  are  treated  only  when  connected 
directly  with   Hygiene. 

Many  of  the  illustrations  are  entirely  original  in 
design,  and  explain  physiological  actions  without 
bringing  anatomy  into  prominence.  Care  has  been 
taken  with  the  anatomical  plates,  so  that  nothing  ob- 
jectionable  will  be  found. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


CONTENTS. 


I.  General  Considerations 
II.  The  Human  Body  .... 

III.  In  The  Dissecting  Room — The  Skin  . 

IV.  The  Muscles 

V.  The  Nerves 

VI.  The  Circulation — Heart  and  Bloodvessels 
VII.  Air — Oxygen — Respiration 
VIII.  Ventilation — Heating    .... 

IX.  Digestion 

X.  Absorption     ...... 

XI.  Indigestion         ..... 

XII.  Food — Cooking 

XIII.  Excretion 

XIV.  The  Bones  and  Skeleton 

XV.  General  Consideration  of  Hygiene 

XVI.  Heredity 

XVII.  Hereditary  Diseases 
XVIII.  Two  Journeys  Through  Life 

XIX.  Disease     ...... 

XX.  Disease  Germs      ..... 

XXI.  Contagion         ..... 

XXII.  The  Avoidance  of  Contagious  Diseases 

XXIII.  Exercise  (Physical) 

XXIV.  Exercise  (Mental)  .         .         . 
XXV.  Bathing — Cleanliness 


1 

14 

30 

40 

48 

63 

75 

100 

124 

141 

145 

157 

165 

177 

182 

197 

218 

221 

226 

231 

237 

240 

245 

293 

299 


VI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER.  PAGE. 

XXVI.  Clothing— Dress 318 

XXVII.  Sleep 339 

XXVIII.  Stimulants — Condiments,  etc 347 

XXIX.  Habits  and  Customs 384 

XXX.  Religion  and  Health 399 

XXXI.  Society  and  Health 406 

XXXII.  Education  and  Health 409 

XXXIII.  Water 418 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Centr 


es  in 


The  Sanitarian's  Interpretation  of  the  Book  of  Genesis 

Frontispiece 

1.  Natural  Cycle  of  Organic  Matter 

2.  Natural  Disposal  of  Organic  Matter 

3.  Unnatural  Cycle  of  Organic  Matter 

4.  City  House  and  Sewer  Gas    . 

5.  The  Vital  Organs     .... 

6.  Vertical  Section  of  The  Skin 

7.  Three  Papilla?  or  "  Tactile  Corpuscles  " 

8.  Diagram  Showing  the  Position  of  the  Nervous 

the  Head     ..... 

9.  Showing  the  Muscles  in  Action 

10.  Striated  Muscle         .... 

11.  Non-Striated  Muscle      . 

12.  The  Function  of  the  Nerves 

13.  A  Fly  on  My  Nose 

14.  Brain  and  Spinal  Cord 

15.  Reflex  Movements  of  Stomach 

1 6.  Vertical  Section  of  Skull  and  Brain 

17.  Human  Blood  Corpuscles 

18.  The  Heart 

19.  The  Heart  and  Circulation  Simplified 

20.  Relations  of  Bloodvessels 

21.  The  Cycle  of  Oxygen 

22.  Diagram  of  the  Circulation 

23.  The  Municipal  Circulation 

24.  The  Lungs 

25.  The  Lungs 

26.  Pulmonary  Vesicles 

27.  Draughts 


5 
8 
9 
11 
15 
31 
32 

34 
41 
44 
44 

45 
49 
50 
51 
56 
64 
66 
67 
68 
81 
83 
84 
87 
88 
90 
103 


Vlll 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


28.  Window  Ventilation 

29.  Ideal  Ventilation  and  Heating 

30.  Bath-room  Ventilation 

31.  Window  Ventilation 

32.  Foul  Cellar      .... 

33.  The  Alimentary  Canal 

34.  Grain  of  Wheat 

35.  Muscular  Fibre     . 

36.  The  Alimentary  Canal 

37.  Churning  of  Food  in  the  Stomach 

38.  Circular  Muscles  of  Stomach     . 

39.  Tube  Constricted 

40.  Chyme  Passing  Out  of  Stomach 

41.  The  Liver 

42.  Loaf  of  Bread 

43.  Diagram  of  Food  Values 

44.  The  Lungs  and  Heart 

45.  A  Kidney     . 

46.  The  Skeleton    .... 
47-58.  Relative   Influence   of  Heredity   and   Hygiene 

Longevity    ....... 

59.  Chevreul  at  100  years  of  age 

60.  Hon.  Hamilton  Fish  at  60,  70,  and  83  years  of  age 

61.  David  Dudley  Field  at  63  and  86  years  of  age 

62.  Hon.  Chauncey  M.  Depew  passing  through  life 

63.  Hon.  W.  E.  Gladstone 

64.  Cardinal  Manning 

65.  Dr.  O.  W.  Holmes        .... 

66.  De  Lesseps       ...... 

67.  Cardinal  Newman  .... 

68.  Admiral  Sir  Provo  Wallis 

69.  A  Journey  Through  Life  "  as  it  is  " 

70.  "       "  "  "     "as  it  should  be" 

71.  Disease  Germs 

72.  The  Blacksmith's  Abnormal  Arm      . 

73.  Showing  the  Course  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood 

74.  The  Mechanism  of  the  Valves  of  the  Heart 


109 
112 
116 
119 
121 
126 
127 
127 
131 
132 
134 
134 
135 
136 
139 
160 
171 
171 
178 

upon 

.  198-209 
210 
211 
212 
213 
214 
214 
214 
214 
215 
216 
222 
224 
233 
246 
252 
253 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


IX 


FIG. 

PAGE 

75.  Mechanism  of  a  Syringe         .... 

254 

76.  Correct  Position  in  Standing      .... 

.    262 

77.  Incorrect     "         "       «                  ... 

262 

78.  Please  Sell  Your  Horses  and  AValk  More 

.    264 

79-102.  Exercise 

271-290 

103.  Interior  of  Stabiani  Baths  at  Pompeii 

.     301 

104.  Julius  Csesar         ...... 

303 

105.  A  Modern  Bath-room   ." 

.     311 

106,  107.  Trimming  the  Toe  Nails 

316 

108.  Dress— The  Chiton 

.     320 

109.  An  Egyptian  King 

321 

110.  An  Egyptian  Queen 

.     321 

111.  An  Assyrian  King 

321 

112.  Eastern  Costume 

.     322 

113.  A  Sanitary  Costume 

323 

114.  Hat  Ventilation 

.     326 

115.  The  Foot — Natural  and  Deformed 

331 

116.  Proper  and  Improper  Shoe        .... 

.    331 

117.  Ribs,  Proper 

334 

118.  Ribs,  Effect  of  Corsets  on           .... 

.    334 

119.  Foot  in  High-heeled  Shoe      .... 

335 

CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

Iii  the  beginning  of  time  God  made  a  certain,  defi- 
nite amount  of  organic  matter;  at  the  end  of  time 
there  will  be  exactly  the  same  amount  of  matter. 
During  the  almost  inconceivably  long  period  of  time 
that  has  elapsed,  and  will  elapse,  between  the  begin- 
ning and  the  end,  this  amount  never  has,  and  never 
will,  vary  the  one -millionth  part  of  one  grain.  Matter 
is  indestructible;  this  is  a  scientific  fact — a  funda- 
mental, undisputed  and  indisputable  fact,  that  must  be 
ever  borne  in  mind  when  treating  of  organic  bodies. 
Man  is  an  organic  body,  and,  at  the  very  threshold  of 
the  study  of  man,  we  must  clearly  grasp  the  fact 
that  the  organic  matter  of  which  he  is  made  is  not 
capable  of  being  destroyed.  That  which  seems  to  our 
uneducated  senses  like  destruction,  is,  in  reality,  but 
a  change  of  form. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  we  get  this 
idea  firmly  fixed  in  our  minds,  because  it  is  the  cen- 
tral point,  or  the  axle,  so  to  speak,  around  which 
revolves  the  whole  science  of  hygiene. 

In  the  beginning  God  established  certain  definite 
natural  laws  to  govern  matter.  Out  of  this  matter  He 
made  man  and  woman,  acting,  in  their  creation,  in 
accord   with    the    laws  that    He   had    created;     and   in 


2  HYGIENE. 

these  natural  laws  it  is  but  fair  to  assume  that  He 
provided,  pre-eminently,  for  health,  and  not  for  dis- 
ease ;  because  in  the  very  centre  of  paradise,  in  the 
most  conspicuous  locality,  he  planted  the  tree  of  life, 
so-called,  because  by  eating  of  the  fruit  of  it  man 
would  have  been  preserved  in  a  constant  state  of 
health,  vigor  and  strength.  This  condition  of  health 
was  the  design  of  the  Creator,  and  He  placed  it 
not  only  within  the  reach  of  all,  but  so  easily  ac- 
cessible, as  typified  by  the  planting  of  the  tree  of 
life  in  the  midst  of  paradise,  that  it  could  be 
missed  only  by  their  willful  obstinacy.  It  was  not  the 
"tree  of  life,"  but  rather  the  "tree  of  knowledge" 
that  our  first  parents  were  forbidden  to  eat  of. 
This  injunction  was  placed  upon  them  not  only 
as  a  test  of  their  obedience,  but  because  the  Almighty 
knew  that,  led  on  by  the  devil,  they  would  seek  the 
fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowledge  in  the  belief  that  it 
would  impart  to  them  a  knowledge  superior  to  that 
which  the  Creator  wished  them  to  have.  Now,  to  my 
mind,  all  this  means  that  God,  as  the  Creator  of 
Nature  and  Natural  Laws,  intended  that  we  should  live 
natural  lives  in  accord  with  nature's  laws,  and  that 
while  we  did  so,  health  and  strength  would  be  ours; 
but  that  He  did  not  intend  that  we  should  acquire  a 
degree  of  knowledge  that  would  cause  us  to  run 
counter  to  the  laws  of  nature,  though  at  the  same  time 
He  endowed  His  creatures  with  ' '  free  will ' '  that  they 
might  do  as  they  pleased.  He  made  Adam  and  Eve 
familiar   with   the   laws   of   nature,    and   He   placed    the 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  3 

fruit  of  the  ' '  tree  of  life  ' '  and  health  within  easy 
reach.  At  the  same  time  He  placed  within  their  power 
the  tree  of  knowledge,  leaving  to  their  own  free  will 
whether  to  eat  of  the  fruit  which,  as  they  thought, 
would  give  them  a  knowledge  superior  to  that  of 
natural  laws;  but  He  warned  them  that  if  they  chose 
this  fruit,  they  would  thereby  bring  upon  themselves 
disease  and  premature  death. 

The  lesson  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  is  the  selfsame 
lesson  that  the  Sanitarian  of  to-day  teaches.  To  the 
simple  child  of  nature,  living  strictly  in  accord  with 
the  laws  of  nature,  hygiene  is  an  unneeded  science; 
health  and  vigor  and  long  life  belong  to  him,  and  will 
be  his  by  right;  but  when  the  boasted  superior  intel- 
ligence of  man  has  tempted  him  to  devise  methods  of 
life  in  opposition  to  those  indicated  by  nature,  just  as 
in  the  days  of  Adam,  so  in  our  own  time,  the  penalty 
is  disease  and  premature  death. 

Since,  then,  disease  is  the  result  of  a  violation  of 
natural  laws,  it  must  be  met  and  fought  by  an  appli- 
cation of  these  laws,  which  are  the  laws  of  health  or 
the  science  of  hygiene. 

One  more  lesson  from  the  Garden  of  Eden.  God 
placed  Adam  in  an  open  garden.  He  did  not  clothe 
him  in  flannel  and  broadcloth  and  place  him  in  a 
palace.  No  one  questions  that  He  could  have  done  so 
had  He  so  willed.  But  He  did  not;  and  why?  Be- 
cause it  was  not  part  of  His  grand  design  of  health 
that  man  should  wear  clothing  or  live  in  houses.  It 
was  only  after  his  departure  from  the  original  state  of 


4  HYGIENE. 

natural  simx^licity  that  man  conceived  the  idea  of 
clothing  and  houses.  Mark  this  point  well,  because, 
while  I  shall  not  be  foolish  enough  to  urge  human 
beings  to  abandon  clothing  and  houses,  yet  it  is  a  fact 
that  disease  exists  because  of  unnatural  conditions  of 
life,  as  represented  by  clothing,  life  in  houses,  and 
many  other  artificial  conditions,  and  because  I  want  to 
impress  upon  you  the  fact  that  it  is  the  province  of 
the  science  of  hygiene  to  nullify  the  evil  effects  upon 
health  of  those  artificial  conditions  of  living  that  the 
so-called  civilization  of  man  has  enabled  him  to  devise. 
It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  book  radically  to  reform 
the  present  methods  of  life,  but  rather  to  point  out 
how  the  diseases  that  are  incidental  to  our  methods  of 
living  may  be  avoided. 

One  more  illustration,  to  make  this  point  still  more 
clear.  In  some  of  the  primitive  portions  of  Norway 
(and,  still  more  notably,  in  lands  yet  more  primitive), 
courts,  judges,  prisons,  and  written  titles  to  property 
are  unknown,  because  the  people  are  so  primitively  and 
so  naturally  honest;  so,  also,  among  these  simple- 
minded,  primitive  people,  good  health  is  the  rule, 
because  they  are  so  thoroughly  natural  and  live  so 
nearly  in  accord  with  the  laws  of  nature,  that  disease 
does  not  find  among  them  an   excuse   for  its   existence. 

Of  course,  taking  humanity  as  we  find  it  to-day,  I 
do  not  mean  to  say  that  in  each  individual  case  the 
existence  of  disease  is  the  fault  of  the  individual  him- 
self, as  we  use  the  word  fault;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  not 
because  a  particular  man   has  done  something  that  he 


GENERAL   CONSIDERATIONS. 


knows  to  be  wrong  in  the  eyes  of  nature  that  he  is 
sick,  but  I  wish  to  be  understood,  in  the  beginning,  as 
enunciating  the  fundamental  doctrine,  that  nature  is 
opposed  to  disease ;  that  disease  is  the  result  of  unnat- 
ural conditions  of  living;  and  that,  while  no  single 
individual  can  be  held^ -^responsible  for  the  ex- 
istence of   diseased     /y      ~$h      >\    conditions,    yet   dis- 

Rl  a    U^J.^  ®  ^  \ \ 

ease  exists    be-  kt ,:,;  -:si  :;i|p \'<  7-\\        cause   humanity, 

kfo  inly. \W  ,   fjl 
as  a  whole,  '  ^°\^Cfstri  75^     has  seen  tit  to 


depart  from 
methods  of  life 
by  the  Creator,  just 
disregard  the  injunc- 
To  go  back  to 
ity  of  organic  mat- 
of  the  "Natural 
the   question   clear. 


Fig.  1. 

The  Natural  Cycle  of 

Organic  Matter. 


the  natural 
laid  down  for  it 
as  Adam  saw  fit  to 
tions  of  the  Creator, 
the  indestructibil- 
ter,    this     drawing 


Cycle  ' '  will  make 
According  to  the  laws  of  nature, 
that  which  passes  away  from  man  as  waste  should 
be     returned     to     the     ground     where     it    will     serve 


b  HYGIENE. 

as  nourishment  to  vegetable  life.  The  words  of  the 
priest,  when,  on  Ash -Wednesday,  he  places  ashes 
upon  the  forehead  of  the  faithful,  saying,  "  Remem- 
ber, man,  that  dust  thou  art  and  into  dust  thou 
shalt  return,"  have  more  even  than  a  religious 
significance.  They  remind  us  that  as  our  bodies  are 
made  from  the  earth  and  are  being  continually  nour- 
ished and  kej)t  alive  from  the  earth,  through  the 
agency  of  the  food  that  we  eat,  which  is  derived  from 
the  earth,  so  our  bodies  are,  or,  at  least,  according  to 
the  laws  of  nature,  ought  to  be,  continually  returning 
to  the  earth  from  which  they  have  come.  Not  only  at 
the  final  death  of  the  body,  as  a  whole,  but  daily, 
hourly,  momentarily,  it  is  the  design  of  God  that  our 
bodies  should  be  returned  to  the  earth  from  which 
they  have  been  derived. 

We  all  know,  by  instinct,  that  we  must  eat  in 
order  that  we  may  live.  The  wise  man  eats  that  he 
may  live,  while  the  foolish  man  " lives  that  he  may  eat;" 
but,  in  either  case,  as  we  take  food  in,  so  do  we  give 
waste  out,  and  this  waste  is,  in  reality,  the  same 
organic  matter  that  we  have  taken  in,  but  so  altered  in 
its  every  aspect,  in  its  passage  through  our  bodies, 
that  it  is  unrecognizable.  Nevertheless,  it  is  the  same, 
and,  having  been  derived  from  the  earth,  it  must  be 
returned  to  the  earth,  from  which  it  has  been  only 
borrowed  to  serve  the  purposes  of  human  existence. 
If  it  is  thus  returned,  it  will  give  nourishment  to 
vegetable  life :  to  the  potatoes  and  the  turnips  and  the 
beets  and   the    wheat,   rye  and   carrots.     In  time    man 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  7 

will  eat  these  vegetables,  and  this  same  organic  matter 
that  has  nourished  him  in  the  past  will  become  again 
a  part  of  his  organism.  Some  of  these  vegetables,  or 
the  grass,  or  the  corn,  that  has  been  nourished  by  the 
waste  from  man,  will  be  eaten  by  the  cow  or  the 
sheep  or  the  pig  or  the  chicken,  and,  after  a  temporary 
residence  in  lower  animal  life,  will  come  back  as 
steaks,  or  roasts,  or  chops,  or  milk,  or  eggs,  to  the 
human  being.  This  is  the  ' '  Natural  Cycle ' '  of  organic 
matter,  and  it  is  what  the  Creator  intended  when  he 
made  organic  matter. 

This  question  can  again  be  made  very  clear  by  con- 
templating this  picture  (Fig.  2),  that  j)lainly  shows  what 
takes  place  in  a  state  of  nature.  We  must  ever  re- 
member that  ' '  God  made  the  country  and  man  made 
the  city,"  and  in  this  picture  we  see  a  piece  of 
God's  handiwork.  The  artificial  devices  of  man  do 
not  regulate  the  disposal  of  the  waste  from  horses, 
cows,  chickens  and  ducks,  living  in  the  country  in 
a  state  of  nature.  As  this  waste,  which  is  an  organic 
compound,  is  deposited  on  the  ground,  it  gradually 
separates  into  its  simple  elements,  and  we  note  the 
gaseous  elements  rising  to  give  nourishment  to  the 
trees,  while  the  solid  ingredients  are  washed  down  by 
the  rains  to  feed  the  roots  of  the  grass  and  the  vege- 
tables. Is  not  this  ''natural  cycle"  of  organic  matter 
beautiful,  and  does  it  not  seem  almost  sacrilegious  that 
man  should  nullify  it  by  the  use  of  the  intellect  with 
which  God  has  endowed  him?  Yet  that  is  what  he 
does  do. 


HYGIENE. 


__ 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


9 


After  a  time,  when  man  had  lost  his  pristine  love 
for,  and  affiliation  with,  nature,  he  became  dissatisfied 
with  the  condition  in  which  God  had  placed  him ;  and 
it  occurred  to  his  mind,  deteriorated  by  its  growing 
divorce  from  nature,  that  it  would  be  a  good  idea  for 
human  beings  to  live  together  in  community  of  life; 
and  thus  the  first  city  was  formed. 

It  must  be  plain  to  any  one  that  in  a  city  the  waste 
from  man  cannot  be  disposed  of  in  a  natural  manner,  as 
it  is  in  the  country;  that  the  organic  matter  discharged 
from  his  body  because  it  is  no  longer  fit  to  form  a  part 
of  that  body, 
cannot,  under 
the  artificial 
conditions  of 
city  life,  pass 
through  that 
cycle  of  natu- 
ral changes 
that,  alone, 
can  make  it 
again  suitable 
nourishment 
for  his  body. 
As  an  inevit- 
able conse- 
quence, we 
have  the  ' '  Un- 
natural Cycle 
of  Organic  matter. ': 


Fig.  3. 
The  Unnatural  Cycle  of  Organic  Matter. 


10  HYGIENE. 

It  is  the  immutable  law  of  human  life  that  this 
very  life  is  the  result  of  the  ingestion  of  food,  and  its 
rejection  as  waste  after  it  has  served  its  purpose  in  the 
maintenance  of  life.  Since,  then,  man  must  eat  food 
and  void  waste,  whether  he  lives  in  accord  with  nature 
or  with  art,  we  are  confronted  with  the  question  as  to 
what  becomes  of  this  waste  in  cities,  where  the  agents 
of  nature  are  denied  access  to  it.  God  made  the  coun- 
try and  He  ordained  the  "Natural  Cycle  of  Organic 
Matter,"  providing  suitable  and  efficient  agencies  there- 
for. Man  made  the  city;  it  is  an  artificial  production, 
not  contemplated  in  the  designs  of  the  Creator;  and 
man  must  devise  some  means  to  dispose  of  his  own 
waste  organic  matter.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  a 
"  Cycle  of  Organic  Matter,"  but,  as  everything  that 
man  makes  is  artificial  or  unnatural,  so  this  cycle  is 
also  unnatural,  and,  being  so,  is,  of  course,  imperfect. 

There  is  but  little  grass,  and  there  are  no 
cows,  chickens  or  sheep  in  cities.  Man  cannot 
void  his  waste  on  the  ground,  as  in  a  state  of 
nature  ;  it  must  be,  therefore,  carried  away  from 
him,  so  far  as  possible,  in  pipes  and  other  recep- 
tacles. But  such  methods  are  obviously  unnatu- 
ral and  imperfect,  and  the  result  is  that  some 
of  the  organic  matter  that  has  passed  from  man  as 
waste,  comes  back  to  him  in  the  water  that  he 
drinks  and  the  air  that  he  breathes,  without  having 
been  rendered  fit  nourishment  for  his  body  by  a 
previous  passage  through  vegetable  and  lower  animal 
life. 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS. 


11 


This  idea  will  be   made   clear  by  this   drawing  of  a 
city  house. 


/   Sy 

Fig.  4. 
City  House  and  Sewer  Gas. 

The  sewer  is  seen  in  the  street,  in  front  of  the 
house;  also  a  drain  carrying  the  waste  from  the  occu- 
pants of  the  house  to  the  sewer,  to  be  carried  by  it  to 
whatever  point  the  authorities  may  have  designated 
as  its  final  resting  place.  Much  of  this  compound 
organic  refuse  separates,  while  yet  in  the  sewer,  into 
its  original  elements.  There  is  no  grass ;  there  are  no 
trees,  no  sheep,  cows,  horses,  pigs,  chickens  or  grow- 
ing vegetables  in  this  sewer  to  act  as  nature's  agents 
in  the    transmutation  of   this   organic  refuse,   hence,   as 


12  HYGIENE. 

it  separates  into  its  original  elements,  some  of  these 
elements,  unfitted  to  sustain  healthy  life,  must,  of 
necessity,  in  the  shape  of  gases,  find  their  way  back 
into  the  house  from  which  they  have  been  discharged, 
to  become  unhealthy  parts  of  the  unhealthy  looking 
persons  whom  we  see  as  the  victims  of  this  ' '  Unnatural 
Cycle  of   Organic  Matter."     (See  fig.  3.) 

I  have  here  touched  upon  the  question  of  sewer-gas, 
about  which  you  hear  so  much,  and  about  which  I 
shall  have  much  more  to  say;  but,  at  the  risk  of  repe- 
tition, I  would  remind  you  that  what  I  have  thus  far 
said  has  been  said  for  the  purpose  of  making  clear  to 
your  minds  that  it  is  only  because  humanity  has  de- 
cided to  live  in  a  way  not  ordained  by  nature,  that  the 
study  and  practice  of  the  science  of  hygiene  has  be- 
come a  necessity  in  order  that  we  may  enjoy  good 
health  and  the  longevity  to  which  we  are  entitled. 

If  universal  humanity  would,  to-day,  abandon  all 
artificial  methods  of  life,  and  universally  (I  would 
emphasize  the  word  universally)  return  to  that  natural 
code  given  to  Adam  in  Eden,  Ave  could  burn  our  books 
on  hygiene,  and,  in  a  short  time,  by  the  unaided 
instincts  of  nature,  all  would  attain  and  enjoy  a  full- 
ness, not  only  of  physical  and  mental,  but  also  of 
spiritual  health,  that  would  make  the  very  act  of 
living,  happiness. 

But  such  will  not  come  to  pass;  the  tendency  of 
humanity  is  more,  and  still  more,  towards  artificiality, 
and,  because  of  this  fact  the  science  of  hygiene  must 
be  regarded  as    the  most    important  part  of   education. 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATIONS.  13 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

1.  Has  the  amount  of  matter  in  the  world  ever  varied  since  the 
beginning  of  time  ? 

2.  Is  matter  destructible? 

3.  What  is  the  seeming  destruction  of  matter? 

4.  Who  created  matter  and  established  laws  for  its  government  ? 

5.  Why  is  it  fair  to  assume  that,  in  His  designs  of  Creation,  God 
provided  for  health  and  not  for  disease  ? 

6.  Why  were  Adam  and  Eve  forbidden  to  eat  of  the  fruit  of  the 
"  tree  of  knowledge  "  ? 

7.  Can  you  apply  the  lesson  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  to  the  pre- 
servation of  health  ? 

8.  What  is  the  Science  of  Hygiene  ? 

9.  Why  does  disease  exist  ? 

10.  Why  is  good  health  the  rule  among  primitive,  simple-minded 
persons  ? 

11.  Is  each  case  of  disease  due  to  some  fault  of  the  individual? 

12.  Describe  the  "  Natural  Cycle  "  of  organic  matter. 

13.  Tell  what  takes  place  in  a  state  of  nature. 

14.  Describe  the  "  Unnatural  Cycle  "  of  organic  matter. 

1 5.  What  becomes  of  organic  matter  when  the  agencies  of  nature 
are  denied  access  to  it  ? 

16.  Why  is  the  study  and  practice  of  hygiene  a  necessity? 

17.  What  would  be  the  result  of  a  universal  return  to   natural 
methods  of  life  ? 


14  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE    HUMAN    BODY. 

What  I  have  already  said  brings  us  to  the  point 
where  we  understand  that  hygiene  is  the  science  that 
treats  of  health,  that  it  is  the  science  that  tells  a  man 
who  is  surrounded  by  unnatural  conditions,  provocative 
of  disease,  how  he  may,  to  a  certain  extent,  nullify 
the  evil  tendency  of  his  surroundings. 

In  order  that  we  may  clearly  understand  this  sub- 
ject, it  will  be  well  for  us  to  have  some  knowledge 
of  what  man  is,  and  what  the  Creator  intended  should 
be  his  healthy  functions.  In  my  opinion  it  is  neither 
necessary  nor  proper  for  the  non -medical  public  to  make 
an  intimate  study  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology.  Yet, 
as  a  good  engineer  must  be  familiar  with  the  various 
parts  that  go  to  make  up  the  whole  of  his  engine,  and 
with  the  function  that  each  part  plays  in  the  finished 
production  of  the  whole,  so  he  who  would  be  a  good 
conductor  of  his  own  bodily  functions  must  know 
something  of  the  make-up  and  the  healthy  function 
of  the  various  parts  that  go  to  compose  the  body  as  a 
whole.  Therefore,  without  going  into  the  details  of 
anatomy  and  physiology,  I  will  describe  the  anatomy 
and    physiology     of     the    human    body    sufficiently    to 


THE    II  I'M  AN    BODY. 


15 


enable    one  to   clearly  grasp   the   hygienic  dogmas   and 
theories  that  will  follow. 

The  body  of 
man  might  be  aptly 
compared,  for  the 
sake  of  familiar  il- 
lustration, to  our 
own  United  States. 
We  find  in  the 
human  body  many 
different  systems, 
just  as  we  have 
the  different  States. 
Thus  we  have  the 
muscular  system, 
the  nervous  system, 
the  circulatory  sys- 
tem, the  absorbent 
system,  the  secre- 
tory system,  the 
excretory  system, 
and  so  on.  These 
various  systems 
have  their  own 
laws  for  their  guid- 
ance, just  as  each 
of  our  States  has  its 
own  Constitution. 

Each  system   has  its  own  particular  function  to  per- 
form; the  muscular  system  is  to  produce  motion,  both 


Fig.  5. 

The  Vital  Organs. 

Front  view  of  the  organs  in  their  natural  rela- 
tions. The  heart  is  partly  covered  by  the 
lungs,  but  its  true  outline  is  indicated  by  a 
dotted  line.  Only  ten  ribs  are  shown  on  each 
side,  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  (the  floating 
ribs)  being  too  short  to  be  included  in  the 
section. 


16  HYGIENE. 

voluntary  and  involuntary;  the  nervous  system,  like 
the  telegraph  wires  of  a  city,  is  to  convey  impressions; 
the  circulatory  system,  like  the  market-trains  on  a 
railroad,  is  to  convey  nourishment  to  the  various  parts 
of  the  body;  the  absorbent  system,  like  the  good 
housewife  who  knows  what  to  buy,  and  what  to  reject, 
is  to  select  from  that  which  we  eat  that  which  the 
body  requires,  and  deliver  it  to  the  circulatory  system 
to  be  carried  to  where  it  is  needed ;  the  digestive  sys- 
tem must  convert  the  crude  food  that  we  eat  into 
nourishment  suitable  for  the  body,  and  prepare  it  for 
the  absorbent  system ;  the  secretory  system  must  select 
from  the  circulating  fluid  that  which  is  required  by 
each  part  to  enable  it  to  properly  perform  its  duty; 
while  the  excretory  system,  like  the  scavengers  of  a 
well-governed  city,  must  remove  from  the  body  that 
which  is  no  longer  essential  to  its  healthy  life  and  the 
longer  retention  of  which  would  prove  detrimental  to 
the  harmony  of  the  whole  system. 

The  welfare  and  politically  healthy  life  of  this  whole 
country  depends  upon  the  integrity  and  faithful  observ- 
ance of  the  laws  of  each  State.  So,  our  own  welfare 
and  the  physically  healthy  life  of  our  bodies  depends 
upon  the  proper  action  and  performance  of  duty  of  the 
various  systems  within  us.  The  various  States  are 
under  the  control  and  direction  of  a  central  govern- 
ment, whose  administration,  be  it  good  or  bad,  will,  to 
a  certain  extent,  affect  the  welfare  of  each  individual 
State,  beneficially  or  injuriously.  So,  our  various  sys- 
tems are  under  the   control  of  a  central  power,  so  to 


THE    HUMAN    BODY.  17 

speak — the  vital  power,  or  the  property  which  endows 
us  with  life  (whose  executive  is  the  intelligence) 
and  which  enables  us  to  direct  the  actions  of  our 
bodies,  either  for  their  general  good  or  their  general 
woe. 

If  one  of  our  States  is  corrupt,  and  sends  to  the 
National  representation  poor  nourishment  from  which 
to  form  its  life,  in  the  shape  of  corrupt  and  depraved 
legislators,  they  not  only  do  harm  to  themselves  and 
their  own  State,  but,  by  interfering  with  and  contami- 
nating the  other  representatives,  they  injure  the  coun- 
try at  large.  So  it  is  with  the  human  body.  If  we 
neglect,  abuse  and  deprave  one  particular  system,  the 
evil  effects  do  not,  unfortunately,  remain  confined  to 
where  they  originated.  According  to  the  laws  of 
nature,  which  make  each  portion  of  the  body  dependent 
upon  each  other  part,  the  evil  effects  spread  from  sys- 
tem to  system,  and,  contaminating  them  all,  interfere 
with  the  healthy  performance  of  duty. 

I  have  used  the  above  illustration  to  enforce  the 
statement  I  am  now  about  to  make.  That  a  healthy 
and  proper  performance  of  ALL  the  functions  of  the 
body  is  necessary  in  order  that  we  should  enjoy  per- 
fect health  and  very  great  longevity.  If  one  system 
acts  imperfectly,  it  will  not  only  produce  its  own  par- 
ticular effects  in  causing  disease  and  shortening  life, 
but,  by  interfering  with  the  proper  duty  of  other  sys- 
tems, will  cause  disease  of  them,  and  these,  acting 
injuriously  upon  still  others,  will  disease  them.  This 
will  go   on   until  the  whole  body  becomes  involved   in 


18  HYGIENE. 

this  imperfect  performance  of  duty,  and  premature 
decay  and  early  death  ensue. 

Just  here  it  will  be  pertinent  to  anticipate  what  I 
shall  have  to  say  frequently  thoughout  this  book,  and 
to  assure  you,  beyond  doubt,  that  a  man  who  may 
have  some  diseased  system,  or  set  of  organs,  may  yet 
live  to  positive  old  age.  He  need  not,  and  must  not, 
despair  of  long  life.  The  absolutely  and  typically 
healthy  man  is  a  great  rarity ;  yet  many  persons  live  to 
a  good  old  age.  But,  if  a  man  has  a  diseased  heart,  a 
deranged  nervous  system,  a  disordered  kidney,  a  weak 
stomach  or  an  unhealthy  liver,  then,  indeed,  must  he  be 
doubly  careful.  If  such  a  defect  does  exist,  then,  by 
following  the  advice  of  this  book,  he  may  live  just  as 
long  as  the  sound  man  who  does  not  take  care  of  him- 
self; because,  by  so  doing,  he  will  reduce  to  the 
minimum  the  amount  of  labor  to  be  performed  by  the 
part  that  is  weak,  will  conserve,  to  the  utmost  limit, 
the  amount  of  vital  power  that  is  possessed  by  it,  and 
thus  enable  it  to  work,  and  his  body  to  live  much 
longer  than  if  he  had  neglected  these  precautions. 

Later  on  I  will  go  a  little  more  fully  into  the  Anat- 
omy and  Physiology  of  the  human  body;  but  I  am 
anxious  that  you  should,  first  of  all,  have  fixed  in  your 
minds,  rather  a  practical  than  a  technical  familiarity 
with  your  bodies ;  hence  I  am  giving  you  first  the  im- 
pressions of  the  body  as  they  exist  in  my  mind  years 
after  the  technical  details  have  been  planted  there.  In 
my  medical-student  days,  I  was  dismayed,  confused, 
disgusted,  by  the  presentation  to  my  utterly  unprepared 


THE   HUMAN    BODY.  19 

mind  of  technical  terms  and  scientific  discourses  that 
were,  at  first,  as  completely  unintelligible  as  would  be 
the  Chaldaic  language  to  the  boy  who  knows  not  how 
to  read.  By  dint  of  perseverance  and  hard  work  these 
technical  details  and  terms  were  committed  to  a  secure 
lodging  in  my  brain,  where,  taking  root,  they  ulti- 
mately grew  into  a  somewhat  clear  understanding  of 
their  practical  meaning.  As  this  book  is  not  written 
for  medical  students,  I  do  not  propose  that  those  who 
use  it  shall  be  mystified  and  disheartened,  by  having 
placed  first  before  them  a  lot  of  dry,  uninteresting  and 
unintelligible  Anatomical  and  Physiological  details,  but 
rather  will  I  ask  them  to  commence  where  I  now  am, 
to  view  with  me  the  human  body  as  years  of  reflection 
have  brought  me  to  view  it ;  then,  when  they  feel  a 
practical  familiarity  therewith,  the  technical  details 
that  follow  will  be  readily  understood. 

Let  us  first  clearly  familiarize  ourselves  with  the 
human  body  as  a  whole  before  we  take  it  up  in  detail. 

Of  course,  you  already  realize  that  the  body  of  man 
is  a  mass  of  that  organic  matter  about  which,  already, 
so  much  has  been  said ;  but  the  human  body  is  also, 
viewed  from  a  physical  standpoint,  a  marvelous  ma- 
chine. Wonderful  in  its  origin  and  formation,  mys- 
terious in  its  functions,  and  immeasurable  in  its  possi- 
bilities, it  is,  nevertheless,  in  reality,  a  machine.  Bear 
in  mind  that  I  am  not  including  the  soul,  when  I  call 
the  body  a  machine ;  we  are  now  considering  the  cor- 
poreal, to  the  exclusion  of  the  spiritual  portion  of  man, 
with   which  we   shall   have  to   do   only   incidentally.     I 


20  HYGIENE. 

wish  this  point  to  be  clearly  understood,  since,  al- 
though true  materialism  and  religion  are  perfectly 
compatible  beliefs,  yet  I  do  not  deem  it  proper  to  dis- 
cuss them  in  a  work  like  this,  and  I  do  not  wish  to  be 
misunderstood.  Whatever  I  may  say  of  a  materialistic 
nature  is  intended  only  to  apply  to  the  body  and  not 
to  the  soul  of  man. 

No  doubt,  some  may  criticise  me  and  I  may  be  ac- 
cused of  a  want  of  proper  appreciation  of  the  functions 
of  the  human  body,  when  I  call  this  body  a  machine. 
The  over-sensitive  feelings  of  some  will  be  wounded  by 
this  application  of  a  word  so  common,  and  even  may 
be  so  vulgar,  as  machine,  to  an  organization  so  deli- 
cate, so  refined,  so  divine,  in  its  origin;  so  god-like, 
so  wonderful,  and  so  incomprehensible,  in  its  mani- 
festations, as  the  human  body.  Yet,  the  comparison 
is  not  so  inapt  nor  so  overdrawn  as  might  at  first 
appear. 

Webster  defines  the  word  machine  as  follows :  "In 
general,  any  body  or  assemblage  of  bodies  used  to  trans- 
mit and  modify  force  and  motion,  as  a  lever,  jnilley, 
wedge,  screw,  etc.  ;  especially  a  construction,  more  or  less 
complex,  consisting  of  a  combination  of  moving  parts, 
or  simple  mechanical  elements,  as  wheels,  levers,  cams, 
etc.,  with  their  supports  and  connecting  frame- work, 
calculated  to  receive  force  and  motion  from  a  prime- 
mover,  or  from  another  machine,  and  transmit,  modify 
and  apply  them  to  the  production  of  some  desired 
mechanical  effect  or  work,  as  weaving  by  a  loom  or 
the   excitation  of  electricity  by  an  electrical  machine." 


THE    HITMAN    BODY.  21 

"3.  Any  instrument  or  organization  by  which  power  is 
applied  and  made  effective,  or  a  desired  effect  pro- 
duced; the  whole  complex  system  by  winch  any  organ- 
ization or  institution  exists  or  is  carried  on."  In  his 
medical  dictionary,  Dunglison  says:  "The  human  body 
is  the  collection  of  organs  which  compose  the  frame." 
Is  not  the  human  frame  a  collection  of  organs  and 
parts,  intended  to  receive,  modify  and  transmit  motion 
and  force?  Is  it  not  an  "instrument  by  which  power 
is  applied  and  made  effective,  or  a  desired  effect  pro- 
duced?" Does  not  the  human  machine  receive  vital 
force  from  its  Maker,  and  does  it  not  modify,  regulate 
and  transmit  this  force  so  as  to  accomplish  a  certain 
effect,  known  as  life?  Is  not  the  human  body,  there- 
fore, truly  a  machine?  Let  us  compare  the,  seemingly, 
most  intelligent,  the  most  human  of  hand-made 
machines,  the  locomotive  engine,  to  the  body  of  man. 
As  you  see  the  handsome,  bright  locomotive  rushing 
through  the  country  at  the  rate  of  fifty  miles  an  hour, 
drawing  after  it  many  tons  of  dead  weight,  without,  to 
the  eye  of  the  casual  observer,  any  visible  reason,  or 
cause,  for  it  to  move  at  all,  does  it  not  seem,  even  to 
the  least  romantic,  to  the  most  matter-of-fact  individ- 
ual, to  be  more  than  a  mere  thing  of  iron  and  brass? 
Does  it  not  almost  seem  to  possess  life,  human  life, 
to  be  endowed  with  intelligence?  It  generates  and 
transmits  force,  and,  as  a  resultant  circumstance,  it 
produces  definite  action.  Neither  are  its  performances, 
in  reality,  any  less  mysterious  than  the  phenomena  of 
human  life. 


22  HYGIENE. 

The  fireman  puts  coal  into  the  furnace  and  water 
into  the  boiler  of  his  machine  ;  the  coal  burns  and  pro- 
duces heat,  the  heat  expands  the  particles  of  water 
and  converts  them  into  steam ;  this  steam  is  conveyed 
through  a  series  of  pipes  and  gives  power  and  force  to 
this  mighty  thing  of  iron  to  move,  and  to  present  to 
our  wondering  gaze  startling  and  marvelous  exhibi- 
tions of  power  and  strength.  This  much  we  know. 
But  the  ultimate  why,  the  very  intimate,  minute  and 
final  question,  why  this  burning  of  coal,  and  genera- 
tion of  heat,  and  vaporization  of  water,  should  convey 
to  this  hitherto  heavy,  dead,  inert  mass  of  iron,  such 
terrific  force,  must  ever  remain  an  unanswered  ques- 
tion, a  mysterious  problem,  as  much  so  as  the  ultimate 
why  and. wherefore  of  all  the  mysterious  phenomena  of 
this  beautiful  and  mysterious  world. 

Now  to  our  other  machine,  the  human  one :  Food 
is  introduced  into  the  stomach ;  it  meets  with, 
and  is  acted  upon  by  the  juices  of  digestion,  and,  as 
a  result,  is  converted  into  nourishment »  suitable  for 
the  body;  as  such  (as  blood)  it  is  carried  through  a 
series  of  pipes  (blood-vessels)  and,  parting  with  its 
power  or  force,  gives  power  or  force  to  the  various 
organs  of  the  body  to  perform  their  different  functions, 
the  sum -total  of  whose  actions  constitutes  life.  But, 
the  final  why  this  food  is  capable  of  producing  this 
force  will  ever  remain  an  impenetrable  mystery,  as 
much  so  as  the  production  of  force  from  coal  and 
water   in   the   locomotive. 

The  human    machine,    however,    is,   of    course,    infi- 


THE   HUMAN   BODY.  23 

nitely  more  delicate,  more  wonderful  and  more  perfect 
in  its  organization  and  its  manifestations  than  the 
locomotive.  It  is  the  very  highest  type  of  machinery, 
upon  which,  however  (unconsciously  and  unwittingly), 
all  other  forms  are  modeled. 

It  clearly  bears  upon  it  the  stamp  of  its  divine 
origin.  The  machine  of  iron  is  the  work  of  man,  and 
bears  within  itself  no  power  of  repair  or  renewal; 
made  by  human  agency,  it  possesses  merely  the  power 
to  utilize  the  fuel,  or  food,  supplied  to  it,  in  gener- 
ating force,  and  it  cannot,  like  the  human  machine, 
repair  or  perpetuate  itself. 

Once  worn  out,  its  elements  can,  it  is  true,  be  util- 
ized in  the  manufacture  of  a  new  machine,  but  only 
through  the  intervention  of  the  hand  of  man ;  while 
the  human  machine,  once  made  by  the  will  of  the 
Creator,  not  only  possesses  the  power  to  generate 
force  sufficient  for  life,  but  can  renew  and  repair  its 
waste,  its  wear  and  tear,  and  is  capable  of  perpet- 
uating, of  originating,  machines  like  unto  itself.  The 
human  machine  is  gifted  with  the  power  of  writing. 
The  rjrinting  machine  possesses  the  power  of  printing. 
The  human  machine  can  walk ;  iron  machinery,  in  the 
shape  of  clock-work,  can  give  this  same  power  to  the 
inanimate  doll  of  wood.  The  human  machine  can 
receive,  digest  and  utilize  meat  and  vegetables  and 
convert  them  into  force;  the  iron  machine  can  receive 
and  consume  coal  and  wood  and  convert  them  into 
force.  The  man-made  machine  requires  periods  of  rest 
and  repose,    else    it  will    prematurely   wear    out;     the 


24  HYGIENE. 

divinely -made  machine  likewise  requires  these  same 
periods.  The  human  machine  can  speak.  The  phono- 
graphic machine  can  do  the  same.  The  stove  can 
generate  heat  by  the  burning  of  carbon.  The  human 
body  also  produces  heat  by  the  same  process.  The 
human  machine  has  the  ability  of  relieving  itself  from 
any  excess  of  nourishment  that  may  be  forced  upon 
it;  the  boiler,  through  the  agency  of  the  safety- 
valve,  can  relieve  itself  of  any  excessive  and  dan- 
gerous quantity  of  steam  that  may  have  been  gen- 
erated  from   too  much   nourishment   or   fuel. 

The  human  machine  is  sensitive  to  changes  of 
weather;  the  barometrical  machine  also  responds  to 
them.  The  human  machine,  through  the  agency  of  its 
nervous  system,  can  transmit  impressions;  the  tele- 
graphic machine  does  the  same.  The  human  machine 
has  means  of  getting  rid  of  its  waste;  the  iron 
machine  has  similar  appliances.  The  human  machine 
can  sew;  the  improved  sewing  machine  can  do  it 
better. 

So  I  could  go  on,  indefinitely,  pointing  out  the 
similarity  between  this  human  machine  and  the  iron 
machines  of  men.  The  human  machine  is,  of  course, 
an  incomparably  finer  machine  than  any  other.  It  not 
only  possesses  the  properties  of  them  all,  but  it  is 
endowed  with  many  functions  wanting  in  them;  thus 
demonstrating  its  divine  handiwork.  It  can  think  and 
see  and  hear  and  smell  and  taste;  it  possesses  a  mind, 
a  soul,  and  hence  is,  in  its  original  conception,  at 
least,   a   perfect    macldne ;    though,    unfortunately,   its 


THE   HUMAN   BODY.  25 

perfection  lias,  in  many  cases,  been  marred  by  the 
hand  of  man. 

Yon  have  my  reasons  for  calling  your  body  a 
machine,  and  I  have  made  my  apologies  to  those 
whose  sensibilities  might  be  wounded  by  the  apparent 
harshness  of  my  comparison. 

I  have  endeavored  to  make  yon  regard  yonr  body 
as  a  machine  for  a  purpose.  The  majority  of  men  do 
not  regard  the  body  at  all;  they  rarely  think  of  it, 
and  when  they  do,  it  is  rather  to  think  of  it  as  a 
mysterious  something  they  know  not,  and  care  less, 
what.  It  serves  their  purpose ;  through  its  agency 
they  can  make  money  and  gratify  their  passions,  and 
this  is  all  they  care  about.  When  the  body  dies  (in 
the  commonly  accepted  usage  of  the  term),  that  is, 
when  the  soul  dej>arts  from  it,  the  friends  and  rela- 
tives of  this  mass  of  organic  matter  pay  great  respect 
to  it  and  treat  it  as  something  sacred — the  body,  mind 
you,  not  the  soul.  This  is  additional  proof  (if  any 
more  were  wanted  than  their  every-day  life)  that  the 
majority  of  men  have  either  no  conception  at  all,  or  at 
the  very  best,  a  false  one,  of  the  true  value  of  the  body. 

The  body,  worthless  as  it  may  seem  to  cynical 
philosophers,  is,  nevertheless,  when  truly  considered, 
a  most  sublime  machine.  Upon  its  integrity  depends 
all  that  is  desirable  and  pleasant  in  life.  As  the  resi- 
dence of  the  intelligence  of  man  it  is  entitled  to  great 
respect.  If  the  church  is  honored  and  revered  because 
it  is  the  house  of  God,  should  not  the  body  be  cher- 
ished  and   protected   since    it    is    the   dwelling-place   of 


26  HYGIENE. 

the  soul?  As  it  would  be  impossible  to  generate  great 
steam  power  in  a  weak  boiler,  so  it  is  impossible  to 
produce  intellectual  greatness  or  spiritual  perfection  in 
an  unsound  or  diseased  body.  The  psychical  life  must 
be  fed  from  a  healthy  stomach  and  have  healthy  sur- 
roundings, else  its  manifestations  will  be  unhealthy. 

Since  the  engineer  takes  better  care  of  his  locomo- 
tive, oftentimes,  than  he  does  of  himself,  realizing  how 
easily  it  may  get  out  of  order ;  •  and  since  man  gener- 
ally considers  human-made  machinery  as  very  delicate 
and  very  easily  deranged,  hence  requiring  very  great 
care  and  attention,  it  has  occurred  to  me  that  if  man 
were  to  realize  that  his  own  body  is  but  a  machine,  he 
might  be  induced  to  treat  it  with  more  tenderness  and 
consideration.  Hence  my  reason  for  demonstrating  the 
similarity  between  the  body  of  a  man  aud  a  machine. 

Now,  it  seems  to  me  that  you  must  have  a  fairly 
good  idea  of  what  your  body  is,  that  it  is  a  collection 
of  organic  matter  so  arranged  and  subject  to  such  laws 
as  will  produce  a  certain  definite  result.  It  must  be 
clear  that  this  organic  matter  has  been  brought  to- 
gether and  has  been  made  subject  to  these  laws,  so  that 
life,  and  all  that  it  means,  may  result  therefrom.  And 
now  what  is  life?  In  a  practical  work  like  this  it 
would  be  out  of  place  and  unnecessary  to  enter  into 
philosophical  dissertations  as  to  the  nature  of  this 
much-mooted  question.  For  our  purpose  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  state  that  "Life  is  a  'peculiar,  invisible 
< i ad  undeftnable  agency,  a  gift  of  the  Creator,  which 
has  the  power  of  starting  and  maintaining  in  motion 


THE    BUMAN    BODY.  27 

for  a  certain  'period  the  various  functions  of  the 
body,  whose  proper  action  constitutes  the  healthy  ex- 
istence of  the  animal  or  the  plant."'  I  say  plant, 
because  the  smallest  blade  of  grass  is  endowed  with 
life  and  is  subject  to  the  laws  of  nature  just  as  is  the 
body  of  man. 

In  connection  with  the  question  of  Life,  let  us 
view  man,  not  as  a  machine,  as  we  have  been  doing, 
but,  laying  aside  for  a  moment  the  mechanical  aspect 
and  viewing  man  from  a  less  mundane  and  a  more 
spiritual  standpoint,  inquire  again,  "what  is  man?" 
Religion  tells  us  "Remember,  man,  that  dust  thou  art 
and  into  dust  thou  shalt  return."  Philosophers  moral- 
ize on  the  worthlessness  of  the  human  body,  and  satir- 
ize it.  Poets  sing  the  praises  of  the  Soul  and  deride 
its  residence  of  clay.  The  medical  man  regards  the 
body  as  a  general  hospital,  and  its  diseased  organs  as 
patients  requiring  his  ministrations.  The  business  man 
works  his  body  for  all  it  is  worth  and  considers  it  an 
indefinite  something,  never  stopping  to  reflect  what  it 
really  is. 

What,  then,  is  man,  from  this  new  standpoint? 
Man  is,  in  reality,  an  animal,  just  as  much  so  as  an 
elephant,  a  fly,  or  a  mosquito  is.  Man  is  a  combina- 
tion of  organs  and  parts ;  man  is  a  machine ;  man  is  an 
animal.  The  microscopic  germ,  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye,  of  the  trichina  in  pork,  is  a  living  animal,  as 
much  so  as  man  is.  It  is  capable  of  growth,  devel- 
opment and  reproduction,  just  as  man  is.  The  horse, 
the  cow,  the  dog,  the  wild  beasts  of  the  forest  and  the 


28  HYGIENE. 

fishes  of  the  sea,  are  all  animals,  just  as  man  is.  They 
all  consist  of  an  aggregation  of  organs  and  parts, 
whose  functions  and  duties  are  to  originate,  transmit 
and  modify  force  and  motion.  Wherein,  then,  lies  the 
difference  between  man  and  the  lower  animals?  In  the 
immeasurably  greater  capacity  for  development  en- 
joyed by  man.  Man  alone,  of  all  the  animals,  pos- 
sesses a  soul,  and  this  possession  places  him  far  away 
from  all  other  animals. 

Yet,  man,  with  his  superior  intelligence,  can  learn 
a  valuable  lesson  in  hygiene  from  the  lower  animals. 
The  tigers  and  lions  and  elephants  of  India ;  the  buf- 
falo of  our  prairies ;  the  polar  bears  of  the  arctic,  and 
the  insect  life  of  the  torrid  zone,  rarely  die  of  dis- 
ease. And  why?  Because,  lacking  intellect,  their 
actions  are  guided  solely  by  instinct ;  they  are  obedient 
to  the  laws  of  nature,  and  they  come  into  existence, 
pass  through  their  lives  and  depart  in  accord  with  her 
laws.  These  very  same  animals,  when  domesticated, 
when  brought  into  close  relationship  with  human 
beings,  develop  a  tendency  to  the  very  same  diseases 
that  afflict  humanity. 

This  is  notably  seen  in  «ows ;  the  wild  steers  of  Texas 
are  magnificently  healthy  cattle,  while  the  cows  of 
our  thickly  settled  States  are  very  prone  to  consump- 
tion of  the  lungs  in  identically  the  same  form  in  which 
it  affects  the  human  being. 

Now,  then,  that  we  have  studied  man  as  the  most 
perfect  type  of  machinery  and  as  the  highest  type  of 
the   animal,    let  us   define    him,  as    physically    "«   col- 


THE    HUMAN   BODY.  29 

lection  of  or (/cu/s  and  parts  whose  duty  it  is  to 
contribute  each  its  individual  work  toward  the  per- 
formance of  one  grand  function,  which  function  we 
will  call  life."  Entering  the  "dissecting-room,"  let 
us  take  up  the  study  of  the  organization  of  this  noblest 
work  of  God. 


QUESTIONS   FOR  REVIEW. 

18.  Why  should  we  all  have  some  little  knowledge  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology? 

19.  To  what  would  you  compare  the  human  body  ? 

20.  Are  all  the  functions  of  the  body  necessary  for  life  ? 

21.  If  one  organ  or  system  is  deranged,  does  it  mean  that  life  must 
necessarily  be  short? 

22.  What  do  you  say  of  the  human  body  as  a  machine? 

23.  What  is  the  advantage  of  regarding  your  body  as  a  machine  ? 

24.  Why  should  the  body  be  cherished  and  protected  ? 

25.  How  would  you  define  "  Life  "  ? 

26.  What  is  man  from  a  more  spiritual  stand-point? 

27.  What  is  the  difference  between  man  and  the  lower  animals? 

28.  What  lesson  in  hygiene  can  man  learn  from  the  lower  animals? 

29.  What  do  you  say  of  disease  among  domesticated  animals  ? 

30.  How  would  you  define  "Man"? 


30  HYGIENE  „ 


CHAPTEK  III. 

IN  THE  DISSECTING-ROOM.— THE  SKIN. 

Without  the  dissection  of  the  human  body  it  is  sim- 
ply impossible  for  any  one  to  have  a  complete  and 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  make-up  of  this  body,  but 
since  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  anatomy  and  phy- 
siology is  necessary  only  to  the  student  of  medicine,' 
and  is^  not  a  requisite  to  a  clear  comprehension  of  the 
laws  of  health,  we  will  enter  a  dissecting-room  and 
learn  enough  anatomy  and  physiology  to  enable  us 
properly  to  understand  what  ought  to  be  the  organiza- 
tion and  healthy  functions  of  the  human  body. 

As  we  enter  we  see  five  students  grouped  about 
one  dead  body,  because  each  body  is  divided  into  live 
parts ;  the  head  and  neck,  the  arms  and  one  half  of 
the  chest,  the  legs  and  one  half  of  the  abdomen.  To 
each  one  of  these  five  parts  one  of  the  five  students 
has  been  assigned,  and  he  will,  knife  in  hand,  separate 
part  from  part  until  he  has  become  familiar  therewith. 
The  body  has  not  been  divided  into  live  parts ;  it  is 
entire ;  but  each  student  will  dissect  only  that  portion 
to  which  he  has  been  assigned.  If  he  has  been  given 
one  arm  and  one  half  the  chest,  he  will  confine  his 
work  to  this  part;  with  the  next  subject,  he  will 
select   one  leg   and  one-half  of  the  abdomen,  and,  with 


IN   THE   DISSECTING-ROOM. — THE   SKIN. 


31 


the  third,  he  will  select  the  head  and  neck;  finally, 
if  he  be  a  diligent  student,  he  will  dissect  a  whole 
body.  But  all  this  will  take  time;  in  fact,  the  late 
Di\  D.  Hayes  Agnew,  of  Philadelphia,  whose  fame  as 
an  anatomist  was  very  great,  told  me  that  for  seven- 
teen years  he  passed  fourteen  hours  daily  in  a  dissect- 
ing room.  Of  course  we  cannot  spare  so  much  time, 
hence  we  will  watch  these  students  as  they  dissect  one 
body  and  gather  what  we  can  in  reference  to  its 
anatomy. 

As  we  take   a  general   view  of  the   body   before   us 
we    see    that     it    is  *  / 

covered    from    head 


to  foot  with  skin, 
and  when  we  come  e" 
to  study  the  make- 
up of  this  skin  we 
are  amazed  at  the  «— - fH 
wonderful  work  of 
the  Creator.  The 
skin     is     composed  m 

of  two  layers,  the  /— 
under  ■  layer  being 
called  the  dermis 
or  cutis  vera  (true 
skin),  while  the  up- 
per layer  is  called 
the  cuticle  or  epi- 
dermis. The  epi- 
dermis,    or     upper 


tm 


''.'        ""i 


— c 


J— 


—if 


'^£?^^ 
Fig.  6. 
Vertical  Section  of  the  Skin. — a,  epidermis ; 
b,  dermis  or  cutis  vera  ;  c,  tissue  beneath  skin  ; 
d,  connective  tissue  ;  e,  tactile  corpuscles ;  /,  fat 
tissue;  g,  sweat  glands;  //,  tubes  of  sweat 
glands  ;  i,  orifices  of  sweat  glands. 


32  HYGIENE. 

layer,  serves  merely  as  a  covering  or  protection 
to  the  sensitive  true  skin  below.  In  the  true 
skin  are  nerves  and  blood-vessels,  and  were  it  not 
for  this  covering  the  blood-vessels  would  be  con- 
tinually in  danger  of  being  wounded,  while  the 
exposed  nerves  would  keep  us  in  a  constant  state 
of  pain.  '  In  the  true  skin,  in  addition  to  nerves  and 
blood-vessels  we  find  hair  and  hair  follicles,  seba- 
ceous and  sweat  glands,  lymphatic  vessels  and  muscular 
fibres.  If  you  have  ever  burnt  your  finger  severely 
enough  to  cause  a  blister,  you  will  understand  that  the 
skin  which  rises  and  contains  liquid  is  the  epidermis, 
and  if  you  open  this  blister  and  cut  away  this  skin 
you  expose  the  true  skin,  which  you  will  find  to  be 
very  sensitive.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  cases  of  sun- 
burn ;  if  you  have  been  swimming  on  a  hot  day  in 
summer  and  your  arm  is  sunburnt,  you  know  how 
the  skin  peels  off  and  how  sore  your  arm  is  to  the 
touch  of  the  shirt;  this  is  because  the  protecting  skin, 
or  epidermis,  has  been  blistered  off,  and  the  nerves  in 
the  true  skin  thus  exposed. 

If  you   look  at  your  hands 
you  will  notice  little  ridges  or 
furrows  upon  the  skin  ;    these 
are  made   up    of   the   ends   of 
Fig.  7.  blood-vessels   and  nerves,    and 

Three  Papilla-  or   "  Tactile  Cor-      are  known  as     ' '  tactile   COl'pUS- 
puscles  of  the  Skin."  _. 

cles,"  Fig.  7.  They  are  so 
close  together  that  in  some  parts  of  the  body  there  are 
as   many   as   35,000   in   a   square   inch    of    skin.      It    is 


IX    THE   DISSECTING-ROOM. — THE   SKIN.  33 

through  the  agency  of  these  "tactile  corpuscles"  that 
we  feel  impressions  made  upon  the  skin ;  the  impres- 
sion is  made  upon  the  end  of  the  nerve  and  is  carried 
along  this  nerve,  as  electricity  is  carried  along  a  wire, 
to  the  brain,   where  all  impressions  are  felt. 

Right  here  it  will  be  well  for  us  to  understand  that 
we  do  not  really  feel  with  the  skin,  taste  with  the 
tongue,  hear  with  the  ear,  see  with  the  eye,  nor  smell 
with  the  nose ;  we  do  all  these  things,  in  reality,  with 
the  brain.  The  skin,  the  nose,  the  eye,  the  ear,  the 
tongue,  are  merely  agents  of  the  brain ;  they  are 
organs  connected  with  the  brain  by  nerves,  just  as  the 
various  sub-telegraph  stations  are  connected  with  the 
central  office  by  wires.  These  organs  receive  impres- 
sions of  touch,  smell,  taste,  sound  or  sight;  they 
receive  them  merely  on  the  terminal  ends  of  the  nerves 
that  are  assigned  to  these  organs,  and  with  the  rapid- 
ity of  lightning  they  ■  are  conveyed  along  these  nerves 
to  the  brain,  where  are  they  felt  and  appreciated.  The 
sensation  of  impression  is  referred  to  the  part  upon 
which  the  impression  has  been  made,  but  the  impres- 
sion is  really  felt  in  the  brain. 

To  make  this  still  more  clear,  we  will  divide  the 
brain  into  two  portions ;  that  which  tills  the  upper 
dome  of  the  skull,  the  part  that  is  generally  under- 
stood as  the  head,  and  that  smaller  portion,  low  down 
in  the  back  part  of  the  head,  just  above  the  "nape  of 
the  neck."  In  the  upper  portion  of  the  brain,  called 
the  Cerebrum,  thought  is  produced.  There  intelligence 
resides,  and  it  is  there  the  impressions  about  which  we 


34 


HYGIENE. 


have  been   speaking    are    felt.      In    the    smaller,    lower 
portion  of  the  brain,  called  the  Cerebellum   (Fig.   8),   is 

originated  the  power  for 
the  heart  to  beat,  the 
lungs  to  breathe :  from  it 
all  the  more  purely  animal 
duties  of  man  derive  their 
activity.  Hence,  even 
though  the  Cerebrum,  or 
upper  brain,  should  be 
removed  it  would  yet  be 
possible  for  a  man  to 
live,  though  he  could 
neither  feel,  nor  taste,  nor 
see,  nor  hear,  nor  smell, 
nor  think.  He  would 
still  possess  his  skin  and 
his  ears;  his  eyes,  nose 
and  tongue ;  their  special 
nerves  would  still  run  to 
these  organs,  and  impres- 
sions could  still  be  made 
thereon;  but,  without  the 
cord)  rum,  it  would  be 
impossible  for  the  indi- 
vidual to  be  cognizant  of 
these  impressions.  Thus, 
it  is  evident  that  these  impressions  are  not  felt  where 
they  are  made,  but  must  be  carried  to  the  cerebrum 
to    be    appreciated.      If    you   will    look    at    your    skin 


Fig.  8. 
Diagram   showing   the   position    of  the 
nervous     centers     in     the     head. — 
F  0  T,  cerebrum  ;   C,  cerebellum. 


I1ST   THE   DISSECTIXG-EOOM. —  THE   SKIN.  35 

through  a  magnifying  glass  you  will  see  a  number  of 
little  "holes*'  or  pores;  these  are  the  outer  orifices 
of  the  tubes  that  lead  upwards  from  the  sweat  glands 
located  in  the  tissue  down  below  the  true  skin.  They 
are  almost  infinite  in  number,  as  we  find  as  many  as 
twenty-seven  hundred  of  them  in  one  square  inch. 
As  they  are  found  in  the  skin  all  over  the  body,  one 
human  body  contains  nearly  three  millions  of  these 
little  glands.  If  we  were  to  take  the  tube  that  runs 
up  to  the  surface  from  each  and  piece  them  all  to- 
gether we  would  have,  from  one  person,  a  tube,  or 
hose,  nearly  two  miles  long. 

These  sweat  glands  have  a  most  necessary  duty  to 
perform.  They  are  among  the  most  important  scav- 
engers of  the  body ;  it  is  their  function  to  remove  a 
large,  part  of  that  organic  waste  about  which  we  have 
already  said  so  much.  In  the  warm  weather  you  can 
plainly  see  the  work  of  these  glands  in  the  drops  of 
sweat,  or  perspiration,  that  gather  on  the  skin  or 
trickle  down  the  forehead.  Even  on  the  coldest  days 
of  winter  these  glands  are  at  work  and  we  are  sweating 
all  the  time,  but,  just  as  fast  as  the  perspiration  is 
brought  to  the  surface  it  is  evaporated  into  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere,  and  we  are  not  conscious  of  its 
presence;  hence,  it  is  called  "insensible  perspiration. " 
The  perspiration  consists  of  water  and  used-up  organic 
tissue ;  the  water  passes  off  into  the  atmosphere,  while 
the  organic  matter  is  deposited  on  the  skin  and  the 
clothing.  Hence  it  is  that  the  skin  becomes  soiled 
and    requires  frequent    washing,    else     the    orifices    of 


36  HYGIENE. 

these  glands  will  become  choked  by  the  organic  matter 
deposited  on  the  skin  and  their  ability  to  remove  the 
waste  from  the  body  will  be  thus  interfered  with. 
The  deposit  of  this  waste  on  the  clothing  soils  it  and 
this  accounts  for  the  bad  smells  that  you  notice  in  a 
room  full  of  persons  who  do  not  wash  and  change 
their  clothing  frequently. 

These  sweat  glands  have  also  another  very  important 
function,  namely,  '  that  of  assisting  in  regulating  the 
temperature  of  the  body.  The  temperature  of  a 
healthy  human  being  must  be  always  98  2-5°  Fall. ; 
under  any  and  all  circumstances,  no  matter  if  the 
outside  temperature  be  down  to  20°  below  zero  or  up 
to  212°  Fall.,  if  we  place  a  thermometer  in  the 
mouth,  or  under  the  arm,  of  a  healthy  individual 
it  will  invariably  register  98  2-5°  Fah.  Now,  why 
is  this?  Because,  within  the  body,  just  as  within 
the  stove,  heat  is  being  continually  generated  by  the 
union  of  carbon  and  oxygen ;  perhaps  enough  heat 
is  being  made  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  body 
to  100°  Fah.,  if  so,  the  water  that  has  been  brought  to 
the  surface  by  the  sweat  glands,  evaporating  into  the 
atmosphere,  thereby  cools  the  body  down  to  the 
proper  standard.  To  understand  this,  wet  your  finger 
and  blow  on  it  and  see  how  cool  it  will  feel ;  this  cool- 
ness is  caused  by  the  rapid  evaporation  of  the  moisture 
from  the  surface,  and  it  is  exactly  the  same  process 
that  is  continually  taking  place,  unconsciously  to  us, 
all  over  the  surface  of  the  body,  thereby  regulating 
the  bodily  temperature. 


IN   THE   DISSECTING-ROOM. — THE    SKIN.  37 

It  is  the  excessive  abstraction  of  heat  by  an 
abnormal  degree  of  evaporation  from  the  surface  that 
produces  the  condition  popularly  known  as  "taking 
cold,"  about  which  we  will  have  more  to  say  later  on. 

Under  ordinary  conditions,  about  three  pounds  of 
perspiration  will  be  given  off  each  twenty-four  hours, 
but  this  amount  will,  of  course,  vary  according  to 
temperature   and   other  circumstances. 

There  is  a  very  close  and  intimate  relation  between 
the  action  of  these  sweat  glands  and  of  the  kidneys ; 
when  we  are  sweating  profusely  the  kidneys  have  less 
work  to  do,  and  vice  versa.  Hence  it  is  most  impor- 
tant that  those  whose  kidneys  are  weak,  should,  by 
proper  clothing,  exercise,  cleanliness  and  general  care 
of  the  skin,  keep  these  sweat  glands  in  a  state  of 
healthy  activity,  as,  by  so  doing,  the  kidneys  will  be 
relieved  of  all  unnecessary  labor. 

The  function  of  the  sebaceous  glands  that  are  found 
in  the  skin,  is  to  produce  an  oily,  lubricating  liquid, 
which  keeps  the  skin  and  hair  soft  and  pliant.  Hair 
is  found  all  over  the  body,  and,  I  doubt  not,  that  in 
times  gone  by,  before  clothing  was  invented,  it  was 
found  all  over  as  thickly  growing  as  we  now  see  it  on 
the  head,  because,  in  the  absence  of  clothing,  such  a 
covering  was  needed  to  protect  the  body  from  excessive 
cold.  The  hair  also  serves  other  purposes.  The  eye- 
brows prevent  the  perspiration  on  the  forehead  from 
rolling  directly  into  the  eyes,  by  carrying  the  drops  off 
to  run  down  the  cheeks :  the  eyelashes  protect  the 
eyes    from  dust,   while,  if  we  breath  through  the  nose, 


38  HYGIENE. 

as  nature  intends  that  we  should,  the  hairs  therein, 
in  connection  with  the  sticky  mucus  secreted  by  the 
lining  membrane  of  the  nose,  will  catch  and  hold  the 
particles  of  dust  and  germs  of  disease,  that  would 
pass  directly  into  the  lungs  if  we  breathe  through  the 
mouth. 

The  nails  are  really  outgrowths  from  the  epidermis, 
or   upper   layer   of   the   skin. 

Now,  then,  you  understand  that  the  skin  is  not 
merely  a  covering  for  the  body,  but  that  it  is  an 
organ,  the  function  of  which  has  much  to  do  with  the 
maintenance   of  life. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

31.  How  is  the  body  divided  for  purposes  of  dissection? 

32.  How  many  layers  are  there  in  the  skin? 

33.  What  is  the  dermis  or  cuta  vera? 

34.  What  is  the  cuticle  or  epidermis? 

35.  What  is  the  function  of  the  epidermis? 

36.  What  is  found  in  the  true  skin  ? 

37.  When  you  burn  your  finger,  what  is  it  that  rises  as  a  blister  ? 

38.  What  are  tactile  corpuscles? 

39.  How  many  of  these  corpuscles  are  found  in  one  square  inch  of 
?kin? 

40.  What  is  the  function  of  these  corpuscles  ? 

41.  Do  we  really  feel  with  the  skin? 

42.  What  is  the  cerebrum,  and  what  takes  place  there? 

43.  What  is  the  cerebellum,  and  what  takes  place  there  ? 


IN   THE   DISSECTING-ROOM. — THE   SKIN.  39 

44.  Is  life  possible  without  the  cerebrum  ? 

45.  What  are  sweat  glands ;  how  numerous  are  they,  and  what   is 
their  function  ? 

46.  What  do  you  mean  by  "  insensible  perspiration  "  ? 

47.  What  causes  the  bad  odors  that  arise  from  the  bodies  of  un- 
clean persons  ? 

48.  How  is  animal  heat  made  and  regulated? 

49.  What  is  "  taking  cold  "  ? 

50.  Is  there  any  relation  between  the  sweat  glands  and  the  kidneys  ? 

51.  What  is  the  function  of  the  sebaceous  glands? 

52.  Why  is  hair  found  growing  on  the  body  ? 

53.  What  are  the  nails  ? 


40  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
THE   MUSCLES. 

Being  now  familiar  with  the  body's  covering,  the 
skin,  we  will  remove  it  and  expose  to  view  that  which 
lies  below.  Now  we  bring  to  view  muscles,  fat, 
nerves,   arteries,  veins  and  lymphatics. 

Let  us  take  them  up  separately  and  see  what  they 
are.  Muscle  is  flesh;  that  which  you  eat,  at  dinner, 
as  a  roast  of  beef  is  the  muscle  of  the  cow ;  chops 
are  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  sheep;  pork  is  the 
muscular   tissue   of   the  pig. 

Through  the  agency  of  the  nerves  muscular  tissue 
is  capable  of  contraction,  and  muscles  are  the  organs 
of  motion.  Motion  makes  life,  and  life  consists  of 
motion  both  voluntary  and  involuntary,  and  all  motion 
takes  place  through  the  agency  of  muscular  tissue. 
Muscles  are  capable  of  contraction,  by  which  their 
length  is  shortened,  and  of  relaxation,  by  which  their 
length  is  increased.  Since  each  end  of  a  muscle  is 
lixed,  it  is  evident  that  when  a  muscle  contracts,  and 
is,  thereby  shortened,  the  two  points  into  which  its 
ends  are  fixed  must  be  brought  closer  together;  and 
when  these  parts  are,  in  turn,  drawn  further  apart 
again  by  muscles  acting  in  an  opposite  direction,  the 
muscle,  the  contraction  of  which  drew  these  parts  closer 


THE    MI'SCLKS. 


41 


together  in    the   first    place,    must   relax   in    order    that 
they  may  be   drawn   apart. 

A  simple  illustration,  and  one  that   will  make   clear 
the    action   of    muscular  tissue,   is    seen    in  the   act  of 
flexing  the   fore-arm   upon    the    arm.     On  the   front  of 
the  arm  are  certain 
muscles ;     one    end 
of     these     muscles 
is    firmly   fixed    to 
the  bone  of  the  arm 
above     the     elbow, 
while      the      other 
ends     are     equally 
firmly    fastened   to 
the   bones    of    the 
fore-arm  below  the 
elbow.     Xow,  when 

these  muscles  contract  and  become,  thereby,  shortened, 
it  is  evident  that  the  fore-arm  will  be  brought  nearer 
to,  or  flexed  upon,  the  arm.  Again,  there  are  muscles 
similarly  fixed  upon  the  back  of  the  arm  and  the  fore- 
arm, and  when  these  muscles  contract,  the  fore-arm 
must  be  drawn  away  from  the  arm,  or  extended,  while 
the  muscles  on  the  front  of  the  arm  that  are  used  for 
flexion   will   now   be   relaxed. 

Muscular  tissue,  then,  is  a  tissue  that  because  of  its 
capacity  for  contraction  and  relaxation  is  capable  of 
producing  motion  in  any  part  to  which  it  may  be 
attached  or  of  which  it  may  form  an  ingredient.  A 
muscle   (or  muscles)  as   you   see   it  on  the  table  in   the 


Fig.  9. 
The  left  arm,  showing  the  muscles  in  action. 


42  HYGIENE. 

shape  of  beef,  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  fibres 
(tliread-like  tissue)  and  each  of  these  fibres  is  com- 
posed of  a  number  of  still  smaller  fibres  or  threads, 
called  fibrillcB.  Each  fibre,  or  bundle  of  fibrillar,  is 
enclosed  in  a  sheath  or  covering,  as  are  also  the 
bundles  of  fibres  that  make  up  each  muscle. 

Thus  the  ultimate  structure  of  a  muscle  is  a  fibrilla; 
a  number  of  fibrillar  grouped  together,  and  enclosed 
in  a  covering,  make  a  fibre ;  a  number  of  fibres 
grouped  together  and  enclosed  in  a  covering  make  a 
muscle. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  muscles  in  the  human  body 
— voluntary,  those  under  the  control  of  our  will,  and 
involuntary,  those  over  which  our  will  has  no  control. 
The  muscles  of  locomotion,  the  muscles  that  move  the 
arm,  as  I  have  described,  are  typical  of  the  voluntary 
muscles ;  they  never  contract  unless  we  will  them 
to  do  so ;  they  are  abjectly  subject  to  the  will. 

The  heart  is  a  muscle,  and  it  contracts ,  and  relaxes 
about  70  times  in  every  minute  of  our  earthly  existence. 
So  that,  in  a  person  70  years  old,  the  heart  will  have 
contracted  and  relaxed  the  almost  incredible  number 
of  two  billion,  five  hundred'  and  seventy -five  'million, 
four  hundred  and  forty  thousand  times.  Yet  not  one 
single  contraction  of  this  enormous  number  has  been, 
in  the  slightest  degree,  under  the  control  of  the  will. 
Muscular  tissue  is  found  in  the  walls  of  the  stomach, 
and  by  its  contraction  and  relaxation  the  food  in  the 
stomach  is  kept  moving  about,  a  condition  necessary 
for   digestion ;    yet   not   the    slightest   movement    of  the 


THE    MUSCLES.  43 

stomach  can  be  caused  by  our  will.  Hence,  in  the 
muscle  of  the  heart  and  the  muscular  tissue  of  the 
stomach  we  have  well  typified  the  involuntary  muscles, 
those  not  under  the  control  of  the  will.  The  wisdom 
of  the  Creator  is  here  well  exemplified,  for  were  it 
necessary  for  us  to  will  every  rmlsation  of  the  heart, 
we  would  have  no  time  left  for  anything  else,  while 
many  of  us,  I  fear,  would  forget  to  keep  the  heart  in 
motion,  and  the  whole  machinery  would  come  suddenly 
to   a   standstill. 

The  Creator  has,  therefore,  provided  that  all  neces- 
sarily vital  movements,  all  muscular  contractions 
that  are  absolutely  essential  to  the  maintenance 
of  life,  shall  be  placed  without  the  control  or 
influence  of  our  will.  They  are  automatic,  so  to 
speak,  and  the  individual  has  no  control  over 
them. 

That  which  is  spoken  of  as  flesh  is  muscular  tissue; 
the  muscles  make  up  the  bulk  and  shape  of  the  body, 
while  it  is  rounded  out  and  the  crevices,  so  to  speak, 
are  filled  with  fat. 

There  are  about  four  hundred  separate  and  distinct 
muscles  in  the  body,  and  they  vary  in  shape,  being- 
short  and  narrow,  long  and  rounded,  broad  and  flat  or 
thin  and  flat,  according  as  each  of  these  shapes  is  best 
adapted  to  the  duties  that  each  muscle  may  have  to 
perform.  There  is  a  slight  difference  in  the  anatomical 
structure  of  voluntary  and  involuntary  muscles.  When 
a  fibre  from  a  voluntary  muscle  is  placed  under  the 
microscope    it    is  seen    to    be   marked    transversely   by 


44 


HYGIENE. 


little  lines  or  strice.     Hence,  voluntary  muscles  are  said 

to  be  striated  or  striped,  while  involuntary  muscles  are 

spoken  of   as   non-striated. 

Muscles    are  supplied   with  blood-vessels,  and   derive 

nourishment   from    the   blood   circulating    therein. 

They   are    also    supplied    with    nerves.      A    muscle, 

while  the  agent  of  motion, 
does  not  possess  in  itself 
the  power  of  motion  ;  if 
it  were  not  supplied  with 
nerves  it  would  be  as  inert 
as     the     roast     of     beef     on 


Fig.  10.  Fig.  11. 

A    portion    of  a    voluntary   fibre,  Non-striated  fibres  of  involuntary  muscles, 

sbowing   the   fibrillar  transverse  somewhat  separated  from  each  other  for 

stria\  microscopic  examination. 

{From  Walker's  Physiology.     Allyn  &  Bacon,  Boston.) 


your  table.  The  nerves  supplied  to  the  muscle  give  it 
the  power  to  move.  Let  me  make  this  clear  to  you  by 
an  illustration.  A  man  or  a  boy  approaches  you  on  the 
street,  doubles  up  his  fist  and  makes  a  motion  as  though 
about  to  strike  you  in  the  face  (see  Fig.  12).  Your  eye 
receives  the  impression  of  this  impending  danger,  it  is 
carried  by  the  nerve  of  sight  to  the  brain,   where   it  is 


THE    MUSCLES. 


45 


received  and  understood  by  your  intelligence ;  if  you 
are  plucky  and  think  you  are  a  match  for  the  attack- 
ing party,  your  will  sends  its  orders  through  the  nerves 
to  the  muscles  of  your  fingers  to  contract  and  make  a 
fist;  to  the  muscles  on  the  front  of  your  arm  to  con- 
tract and  flex  the  fore -arm,  and  finally   to  the   muscles 


Tftat  boy  is  your?  fo 
atri/er  J        ' 


Fig.  12. 


on  the  back  of  your  arm  to  contract  with  force,  thus 
extending  the  arm,  throwing  out  the  fist  and  knock- 
ing your  assailant  down.  ■  If,  however,  you  are  a 
coward,  or  if  your  intelligence  concludes  that  "discre- 
tion is  tlw  better  part  of  valor,"  or,  if  you  heed  your 
mother's   and    your    teachers'    injunctions   not    to  fight, 


46  HYGIENE. 

then-  your  will  sends  its  orders  by  another  set  of  nerves 
to  the  muscles  of  the  legs,  and  you  walk,  or  run,  away. 
All  this  takes  place,  of  course,  instantaneously,  but 
each  of  these  separate  actions  is  included  in  the  whole. 
Do  you  not  see  how  necessary  the  nerves  have  been  to 
this  act  ?  Suppose  your  nerve  of  sight  was  defective ; 
you  would  not  have  perceived  the  approach  of  your 
adversary,  and  you  would  have  been  struck  before  you 
were  aware  of  his  presence.  Or,  with  vision  perfect, 
suppose  that  the  nerve  supply  to  your  muscles  was 
defective,  that  you  were  paralyzed ;  your  intelligence 
might  will  or  wish  that  you  should  strike  or  run,  but 
its  commands  could  not  be  conveyed  to  the  muscles 
unless  there  was  a  direct  communication,  by  means  of 
the  nerves,  between  the  will,  in  the  brain,  and  the  par- 
ticular muscles  that  the  will  desired  to  call  into 
operation. 


QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 

54.  When  the  skin  is  removed,  what  is  exposed  to  view  ? 

55.  What  is  muscle? 

56.  What  is  the  function  of  muscular  tissue? 

57.  Give  an  illustration  of  the  contraction  and  relaxation  of  muscu- 
lar tissue. 

58.  What  is  the  anatomical  composition  of  a  muscle? 

59.  How  many  kinds  of  muscles  are  there  ? 

60.  What  do  you  mean  by  a  voluntary  muscle  ? 

61.  What  do  you  mean  by  an  involuntary  muscle? 

62.  What  is  the  heart  ? 


THE  MUSCLES.  47 

63.  Are  the  contractions  of  the  heart  under  the  control  of  the  will? 

64.  How  many  times  does  the  heart  contract? 

65.  How  is  food  kept  moving  in  the  stomach  ? 

66.  Why  are  the  vital  muscular  movements  involuntary? 

67.  How  many  muscles  are  there  in  the  human  body? 

68.  What  are  the  shapes  of  the  muscles? 

69.  What  is  the  difference  in  structure  between  voluntary  and  in- 
voluntary muscles  ? 

70.  Can  a  muscle  contract  of  itself? 

71.  What  do  you  say  of  the  function  of  nerves  in  connection  with 
muscular  contraction  ? 

72.  Give  an  illustration. 

73.  If  the  nerves  were  defective,  what  would  happen  ? 


48  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   NERVES. 

When  we  commence  to  remove  the  muscles  from 
the  body  that  we  are  dissecting,  we  bring  to  view, 
running  here,  there,  and  everywhere,  between  the 
muscles,  underneath  them,  above  them,  into  the  tissue 
of  the  muscle  itself,  shining  white  cords  which  the 
anatomist  tells  us  are  nerves.  That  we  may  properly 
study  the  nervous  system,  we  must  first  divide  it  into 
two   grand   divisions,    namely: 

1.  The  Cerebro- Spinal   Nervous    System. 

2.  The  Sympathetic  or  Ganglionic  Nervous  System. 
Now,  first  we  must  understand  that  the  nerves  are, 
to  the  human  body,  what  the  electric  light,  telephone 
and  telegraph  wires  are  to  the  life  of  a  community. 
It  is  the  function,  or  duty,  of  the  nerves  to  receive 
and  transmit  impressions  and  to  receive  and  transmit 
directions  or  commands.  I  have  often  thought  that 
we  might  really  consider  the  wires  of  the  telephone 
as  an  artificial  prolongation  of  the  natural  nerves  of 
man.  A  person  calls  you  up  on  the  telejmone  and 
says  something;  what  he  says  is  conveyed  along  a 
wire  to  your  ear;  then  it  continues  along  your  nerve 
of  hearing  to  your  brain ;  your  brain  recognizes  and 
understands  the  meaning;  of   the  words  that   have  been 


THE    NERVES. 


49 


■A« 


/  «<///  iruti 


spoken ;  your  intelligence,  in  your  brain,  formulates 
an  answer  and  directs  the  nerves  running  to  the  or- 
gans of  speech  to  convey  its  commands  to  these  organs 
to  speak  this  answer,  and  your  words,  expressing  your 
thoughts,  are  conveyed  over  this  telephone  wire  to 
your  auditor,  to  be  received  by  his  nerves  of  hearing, 
in  contact  with  the  wire,  conveyed  to  his  brain  and 
there  understood.  The  telephone  machine  and  the 
telephone  wire  cannot  hear  what  has  been  said,  in  the 
sense  of  understanding  it,  any  more  than  can  the  ear 
of  man ;  but  the  machine,  like  the 
ear,  and  the  wire,  like  the  nerve, 
are  the  agencies  through  which  im- 
pressions can  be  conveyed  from  one 
person  to  another,  or  from  one 
portion  of  the  body  to  another, 
and  through  which  the  commands, 
or  directions,  or  motion,  or  activ- 
ity that  may  be  incited  or  excited 
by  these  communications  or  im- 
pressions, may  be  returned  to  the 
appropriate  spot. 

The  most  trivial  and  the  most 
vital  phenomena  of  life  depend 
upon  the  nerves.  Suppose  a  fly 
lights  upon  the  end  of  your  nose, 
at  once  you  brush  him  away 
with  your  hand  and  think  no 
But  reflect  now  for  a  moment,  and  learn  what  has 
happened,    and    how   intricate    has   been   this   seemingly 


Fig.  13. 


more     about     it. 


50 


HYGIENE. 


trivial  incident.  The  fly  lights  upon  your  nose;  his 
delicate  little  feet  make  an  impression  upon  the  ter- 
minal ends  of  those  sensitive  nerves  in  the  papillae  of 
the  skin  about  which  I  have  already  told  you ;  this 
impression,  slight  as  it  is,  runs  along  the  nerve  to  the 

brain  with  the  rapidity  of 
lightning,  and  the  brain  be- 
comes aware  of  the  fact  that 
there  is  a  fly  on  the  end  of 
your  nose,  just  as  the  ring- 
ing of  the  telephone  bell 
makes  you  aware  that  some 
person,  at  a  distance,  wishes 
to  speak  to  you.  If  the  im- 
pression made  by  the  feet  of 
the  fly  is  pleasant  and  agree- 
able to  your  brain,  no  action 
results,  and  the  fly  is  allowed 
to  remain  until  he  feels  in- 
clined to  move  away.  But  if 
the  impression  made  is  un- 
pleasant, your  brain  origi- 
nates a  command,  which 
is  transmitted  along  the 
nerves  to  the  muscles  of 
your  arm ;  they  are  set 
into  motion  and  the  fly  is  brushed  away.  This  is  a 
voluntary  act,  and  is  performed  through  the  agency  of 
the  nerves  of  the  first  division,  or  the  "  Cerebro- Spinal 
Nervous  System."     But  now  I  have  told  you  that  the 


Merves  to  front 
of  left  ley 


Nerves  to  back 
«f  ''ft  I 'J 


es  to  back 
iqht  Iff 


Fig.  14. 

Brain    and   Spinal    Cord,   with    the 
thirty-one  pairs  of  spinal  nerves. 


THE    NERVES. 


51 


muscular  movements  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of 
life,  such  as  the  beating  of  the  heart,  the  contrac- 
tions .  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  the  contraction 
and  dilatation  of  the  blood  vessels  and  many  others 
are  not  voluntary ;  they  are  not  under  the  control 
of  the  will,  and  these  move- 
ments are  performed  through 
the  agency  of  the  second 
division  of  the  nervous  system, 
the  "Sympathetic  or  Gangli- 
onic Nervous  System."  These 
movements  are  reflex,  so  to 
speak;  they  are  automatic 
and  not  volitional.  To  illus- 
trate :  Food  is  introduced  into 
the  stomach,  and  an  impression 
is  made  by  this  food  on  the 
nerves  in  the  walls  of  the 
stomach.  This  impression  is 
conveyed,  not  to  the  brain,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  fly  on  your 
nose,  but  to  a  ganglion,  which 
can  be  defined  as  a  little  brain 
not  endowed  with  intelligence 
or  the  power  of  thought,  and 

because  of  the  impression  that  this  ganglion  has  received 
it  is  stimulated  to  send  back  a  command  to  the  stomach 
to  contract.  There  is  no  intelligence  about  this  act; 
your  will  has  nothing  to  do  with  it,  it  is  purely 
reflex,    and   it    is    over    such    automatic    acts    that   the 


Fig.  15. 


52  HYGIENE. 

ganglionic  nervous  system  presides.  It  is  not  in 
the  power  of  your  will  to  make  your  stomach 
contract. 

The  wisdom  of  the  Almighty  in  giving  us  these 
two  nervous  systems  will  be  made  very  clear  by  a 
moment's  reflection.  You  will  understand  that  the 
cerebro-spinal  system  presides  over  the  functions  of 
animal  life,  while  the  sympathetic  system  presides 
over  involuntary  functions,  as  growth  and  nutrition. 
Now,  we  see  that  the  intellect  or  mind  which  has 
control  of  the  cerebro-spinal,  or  voluntary  system,  is 
not  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  life,  and.  that 
it  can,  therefore,  be  devoted  to  the  purposes  of 
intellectual  pursuits  without  being  obliged  to  devote 
all  of  its  time  to  the  effort  of  sustaining  life;  while 
the  sympathetic,  or  ganglionic  system,  presiding  over 
the  functions  of  life,  works  automatically  without 
the  necessity  of  direction  from  the  will,  which,  in 
fact,    has   no   control  over  it.  » 

We  might  then  say  that  the  cerebro-spinal  ner- 
vous system  belongs  to  and  presides  over  the  animal 
side  of  man ;  while  the  ganglionic  system  belongs  to 
and  regulates  the  machine  aspect  of  his  existence. 
But  now  while  these  two  nervous  systems  are  ana- 
tomically distinct,  and  each  has  its  own  separate  and 
distinct  function  to  perform,  yet  there  is  a  more  or 
less  intimate  connection  between  them,  and  because 
of  this  connection  influences  that  act  upon  the  cere- 
bro-spinal system  may  affect  and  derange  the  func- 
tions that  are   presided   over  by  the   ganglionic   system. 


THE   NERVES.  53 

Thus  while  our  will  power  has  no  control  over  the 
action  of  the  heart,  yet  an  impression  of  fear  made 
upon  the  brain  through  the  eye,  or  a  shock,  as  of 
sad  news,  carried  to  the  brain  through  the  ear,  will 
have  the  effect  of  immediately  influencing  the  action 
of  the  heart,  and  this  is  because  of  the  connection 
that  exists  between  these  two  nervous  systems, 
whereby  an  imrjression  made  upon  one  may  exert  its 
influence  through  the  agency  of  the  other. 

I  once  saw  a  young  man,  whose  brother  had  just 
died,  eat  a  heavy  dinner '  half  an  hour  thereafter,  he 
became  very  sick  at  his  stomach  and  vomited  all  that 
he  had  eaten.  An  analysis  of  what  here  occurred 
will  make  clear  the  connection  between  these  two  ner- 
vous systems.  The  death  of  this  brother  had  made  a 
profoundly  depressing  impression  upon  the  mind,  in 
the  brain  of  this  young  man.  This  depressing  im- 
pression had  been  communicated  to  the  nerves  of  the 
ganglionic  system  that  gave  power  to  the  muscles  of 
his  stomach  to  move ;  thus  influenced,  they  were  un- 
equal to  the  performance  of  the  duty  required  of  them ; 
the  food  in  his  stomach,  not  being  moved  about  by  the 
muscular  contractions  of  this  organ,  lay,  as  it  were,  in 
a  bag,  and  instead  of  digesting,  it  putrefied.*  Having 
putrefied,  or  rotted,  it  was  offensive  to  the  stomach, 
'and,  through  the  agency  of  the  ganglionic  system  of 
nerves,  by  a  reflex,  unconscious  action,  it  was  expelled 
without  any   act  of  the  will.     Here  we  see   an  impres- 

*  The  difference  between  digestion  and  putrefaction  will  be  explained  in  the 
chapter  on  Digestion. 


54  HYGIENE. 

sion   made    upon     the    cerebrum,    producing     an    effect 
through   the   ganglionic   nerves. 

Again,  the  blood  vessels  all  over  the  body  are  liber- 
ally supplied  with  nerves  derived  from  the  ganglionic 
system,  and  these  nerves  of  the  blood-vessels  are  called 
vaso-molor  nerves.  The  blood  vessels  are  elastic  tubes, 
containing  muscular  tissue  in  their  walls,  and  because 
of  this  they  are  capable  of  contraction  and  expansion, 
as  is  everything  that  contains  muscular  tissue.  This 
contraction  and  expansion  the  miso-motor  nerves  govern 
automatically ;}  according  as  'any  particular  part  of  the 
body  may  require  a  greater  or  a  lesser  amount  of  blood 
for  its  nourishment,  these  nerves  cause  the  blood  ves- 
sels running  to  this  particular  part  to  contract  or  ex- 
pand until  their  calibre  becomes  just  that  which  is 
necessary  to  allow  the  desired  amount  of  blood  to  flow 
through  it.  \  You  might  use  your  will  from  now  until 
doomsday  and  you  could  not  influence  the  calibre  of 
one  small  blood  vessel  the  fraction  of  an  inch ;  but  let 
some  one  say  something  to  you  that  causes  a  feeling  of 
anger  or  of  shame — instantly  the  impression  made  upon 
the  brain  by  these  words  is  transmitted  to  the  vaso- 
motor nerves ;  they  are  thereby  paralyzed,  their  con- 
trol over  the  blood  vessels  is  lost;  the  vessels  yield  to 
the  pressure  of  the  blood ;  they  distend,  and  the  red 
blush  of  anger  or  of  shame  is  seen  upon  the  cheek. 
Or,  if  the  words  that  have  been  spoken  produce  an  im- 
pression of  fear,  the  vaso-motor  nerves,  instead  of 
being  paralyzed,  are  thereby  stimulated  to  increased 
action ;  they  cause  the  blood  vessels  to  abnormally  con- 


THE   NERVES.  55 

tract,  to  drive  the  blood  out  of  them,  and  the  rosy 
cheek  of  a  moment  before  is  now  the  ashen  cheek  of 
fear. 

Do  you  not  see  how  impressions  made  upon  one 
system  may  produce  an  effect  through  the  other? 

You  must  understand  that  the  cerebrum,  or  brain 
proper,  that  which  has  been  already  described  to  you 
as  occupying  the  dome  or  upper  part  of  the  head,  or 
skull,  belongs  to,  and  presides  over  the  cerebrospinal 
nervous  system,  and  that  the  cerebrum  is  the  seat  of 
intelligence,  of  thought,  and  that  it  is  here  that  all 
impressions  recognized  by  our  intelligence  are  received ; 
while  the  presiding  officials  of  the  Ganglionic  Nervous 
System  are  small  ' '  ganglia ' '  or  collections  of  nervous 
tissue,  devoid  of  the  intellectual  functions  that  charac- 
terize the  cerebrum,  or  brain  proper,  possessed  only  of 
the  power  of  reflex  action,  and  scattered  in  numerous 
different  localities  throughout  the  body,  wherever  their 
presence   may  be   necessary  to  the   maintenance  of    life. 

Of  course,  you  understand  what  a  voluntary  action 
is — that  it  is  an  action  produced  by  the  will;  walking, 
talking,  writing,  are  voluntary  actions,  because  no  other 
power  can  cause  you  to  perform  these  actions  but  your 
will.  A  reflex  action  is  not  voluntary — you  can  neither 
perform  it,  nor  stop  its  performance,  by  the  action  of 
your  will;  it  is  an  action  that  is  performed  because  the 
part  that  has  the  power  of  performing  it  has  been 
induced,  or  stimulated,  to  do  so,  by  an  impression  that 
it  has  received. 

Now  that  we   have  made   clear  the  functions  of  the 


56 


HYGIENE. 


two  nervous  systems,  and  demonstrated  how  one  may 
act  through  the  other,  we  will  briefly  study  the 
anatomical   make-up  of  the  systems. 

1.  The  cerebbo-spinal  nervous  system  includes 
the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and  the  nerves  which 
branch  off  from  each. 

The  brain,  which  occupies  the  skull,  consists  of 
three  parts :  the  cerebrum,  the  cerebellum  and  the 
medulla  oblongata. 

The  brain  consists  of  two  kinds  of  tissue,  one  gray, 

the  other  white; 
it  is  the  function 
of  the  gray  mat- 
ter to  receive  im- 
pressions and  to 
formulate  ideas 
and  commands, 
while  the  white 
tissue,  which  is 
thread-like  in 
structure,  is  to 
carry  or  convey 
impressions  or  di- 
rections. The  gray  matter  might  be  likened  to  the  battery 
which  generates,  and  the  white  matter  to  the  wires 
that  convey  the  electric  current.  Get  this  distinction 
firmly  and  clearly  fixed  in  your  minds,  because  where- 
ever  we  find  gray  nervous  tissue  it  is  always  a  nerve 
centre  capable  of  receiving  impressions  and  of  origi- 
nating  force,  while   the  white    nervous  tissue   is  always 


Fig.  16. 

Vertical  Section   of  Skull  and   Brain. — a,  cerebrum 

b,  cerebellum  ;  d,  medulla  oblongata. 


THE   NEEVES.  57 

the  cord  or  wire  along  which  either  the  impression 
passes  to  the  nervous  centre,  or  the  force  originated 
therein  passes  out  to  the  point  for  which  it  is 
designed. 

The  cerebrum,  or  upper  portion  of  the  brain,  is  the 
organ  of  mind.  There  the  intellect  resides,  and  there 
all  voluntary  motions  or  acts  have  their  origin.  It  is  a 
fact  that  the  cerebrum  is  relatively  larger  in  man  than 
in  any  other  animal,  which  accounts  for,  and  is  a 
necessity  of,  his  superior  intellectual  capacity.  The 
brain  is  abundantly  supplied  with  blood,  relatively 
much  more  so  than  any  other  part  of  the  body, 
because,  while  its  weight  is  not  more  than  1-40  that 
of  the  whole  body,  yet  it  receives  fully  1-5  of  all  the 
blood,  which  very  clearly  indicates  the  amount  of  work 
that  is  expected  from  this  organ. 

Below  the  cerebrum,  posteriorly,  is  the  cerebellum, 
or  little  brain,  the  structure  of  which  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  cerebrum,  while  its  function  is  different. 
The  function  of  the  cerebellum  is  to  preside  over  the 
co-ordination  of  muscular  movements.  The  cerebrum 
originates,  while  the  cerebellum  regulates  voluntary 
muscular  motion. 

The  writers  for  a  monthly  magazine  send  in  their 
contributions  to  the  editor,  who  revises  and  arranges 
them  so  as  to  make  an  harmonious  journal.  So,  while 
the  cerebrum  originates,  the  cerebellum  might  be  said 
to  edit  its  work,  and  so  arrange  and  revise  it  as  to 
provide    an  harmonious  result. 

A  drunken  editor  might  edit  a  journal,  but  it  would 


58  HYGIENE. 

be  a  sorry  mass  of  jerky,  disjointed  literature,  because 
lie  who  should  have  arranged  it  in  order  is  incapable 
of  doing  so ;  a  drunken  man  will  stagger  unsteadily 
down  the  street  because  the  liquor  he  drinks  has  so 
acted  upon  his  cerebellum  that  it  is  not  able  to  regu- 
late his  movements.  The  cerebrum  may  be  still  able  to 
originate  commands,  but  if  the  cerebellum  is  incapable 
of  regulating  and  systematizing  them,  the  result  would 
be  a  series  of  irregular,  irrational,  and  meaningless 
muscular  motions  that  would  be  ludicrous,  if  not  pit- 
iable. 

The  medulla  oblongata,  or  third  division  of  the 
brain,  is  the  upper  end  of  the  spinal  cord,  or  the  grad- 
ually changing  connection  between  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord.  While  not  endowed  with  the  intellectual  facul- 
ties or  possibilities  of  the  cerebrum,  it  is  yet  the  centre 
of  life,  because  from  it  originates  the  nerves  that  con- 
trol many  of  the  vital  functions,  hence  it  is  so  deeply 
buried  within  the  skull  as  to  be  almost  beyond  the 
possibility  of  injury  by  any  ordinary  accident.  In  the 
barbarous  method  of  destroying  criminals  by  hanging, 
a  rope  is  fastened  around  the  neck,  and  by  opening  a 
trap  the  body  is  allowed  to  suddenly  fall  several  feet; 
the  weight  of  the  body  suddenly  jerking  downwards 
away  from  the  head  that  is  held  up  by  the  rope,  dis- 
locates, or  separates  the  bones  in  the  neck,  pressure  is 
made  upon  the  vital  nerves  in  the  medulla  oblongata, 
and  death  promptly  ensues. 

Thus,  then,  we  have  the  three  divisions  of  the  brain 
enclosed  in   a    hard,  strong,    bony    covering,    the  skull, 


THE   NERVES.  59 

which    serves     to    protect     these    delicate    organs   from 
injury. 

The  spinal  cord  is  composed  also  of  gray  and 
white  matter.  It  runs  down  through  a  canal  in 
your  "backbone,"  or  spinal  column,  extending  from 
the  base  of  the  brain  above  to  the  end  of  your 
' '  backbone ' '  below,  and  in  its  course  it  is  continually 
sending  off  nerves  to  the  different  parts  of  the  body  (see 
Fig.  14).  Finally,  when  it  reaches  the  lower  end  of  the 
' k  backbone ' '  it  divides  into  two  great  nerves,  each  as 
broad  as  your  little  finger,  which  are  called  the  Sciatic 
Nerves.  One  of  these  nerves  runs  to  and  down  each 
of  your  legs,  branching  into  an  infinite  number  of 
little  nerves,  to  terminate  each  in  one  of  the  ' '  tactile 
corpuscles'1''  in  the  skin,  with  which  you  are  already 
familiar,  or  in  some  other  portion  of  the  lower  limbs 
for  which  this  special  nerve  may  have  been  designed. 
Whenever  you  hear  anyone  complaining  of  that  pain- 
ful disease  sciatica,  you  will  understand  that  it  is  an 
inflammation  of  this  big  sciatic  nerve. 

You  will  understand  that  with  the  nerves  of  the 
human  body,  as  with  the  wires  of  an  electric  machine, 
a  complete  circuit  must  be  established  in  order  that 
an  effect  may  be  produced;  that  is  to  say,  the  elec- 
tricity generated  in  a  battery  must  be  not  only  carried 
to  the  point  where  its  power  is  to  be  made  manifest, 
but  it  must  be  provided  with  the  means  of  returning 
to  the  place  in  which  it  has  been  generated,  else  its 
power  will  not  become  manifest.  So,  also,  in  the 
human    body    the    nervous    circuit    must    be    complete, 


60  HYGIENE. 

else  the  nervous  force  will  be  impotent.  Hence  we 
find  that  nerves  not  only  run  from  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord  to  the  organs,  muscles  and  skin,  but  that 
they  also  run  to  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  from  the 
muscles,  organs  and  skin. 

To  use  again,  for  illustration,  the  iiy  on  the  nose : 
When  the  fly  settles  on  your  nose,  we  might  suppose 
that  he  creates  a  certain  electrical  action,  if  you 
please ;  this  action  is  conveyed  along  the  nerves  to  the 
brain  and  from  the  brain  to  the  arm,  the  finger 
comes  into  contact  with  the  nose,  or  the  fly  thereon, 
the  circuit  is  completed,  and  an  effect  results.  But 
you  say  that  the  fly  disappears  before  your  finger 
actually  touches  him,  and  that,  therefore,  the  circuit 
has  not  been  completed.  The  electrician  tells  us  that 
electricity  is  capable  of  transmission  for  a  limited  dis- 
tance through  the  atmosphere  without  the  aid  of 
wires;  hence,  when  your  finger  approaches  your  nose, 
the  circuit  is  completed  through  the  atmosphere. 

The  sympathetic  or  ganglionic  nervous,  system  con- 
sists of  a  double  chain  of  ganglia  on  the  sides  of  the 
spinal  column ;  also  of  ganglia  scattered  throughout 
the  body.  Now,  what  do  I  mean  by  ganglia?  This 
is  the  plural  for  ganglion,  and  ganglion  is  a  Greek 
word  meaning  a  knot;  hence  a  ganglion  is  a  knot  or 
lump  of  nervous  tissue,  similar  to  that  which  con- 
stitutes the  brain.  As  I  have  already  said,  a  ganglion 
might  be,  almost,  regarded  as  a  minute  brain,  devoid 
of  the  intellectual  faculties  that  characterize  the  brain 
proper.     These  ganglia   are   connected   with   each   other 


THE   XERVES.  61 

by  nerve  filaments,  or  threads,  and  with  the  cerebro- 
spinal system  by  motor  and  sensory  nerve  fibres. 
From  these  ganglia  very  delicate  nerves  are  distributed 
to  and  received  from  those  organs  and  portions  of  the 
body  whose  functions  are  reiiex  or  automatic,  and 
not  subject  to  the  will.  As  I  have  already  inti- 
mated, the  blood-vessels  receive  the  nerves  that  regu- 
late their  calibre  from  these  ganglia. 

The  Sympathetic  Nervous  System,  as  already  stated, 
governs  and  regulates,  chiefly,  the  involuntary  func- 
tions, such  as  respiration,  digestion,  circulation,  secre- 
tion, excretion,  the  regulation  of  temperature,  and  so 
on,  but,  because  of  the  connection  between  the  two 
nervous  systems,  already  alluded  to,  these  vital  func- 
tions may  be  more  or  less  influenced  by  impres- 
sions made  through  the   cerebro-spinal  nervous  system. 


QUESTIONS    FOR   REVIEW. 

74.  When  we  remove  the  muscles,  what  is  brought  to  view  ? 

75.  What  are  the  two  grand  divisions  of  the  nervous  system? 

76.  What  relation  do  the  nerves  hold  to  the  body  ? 

77.  Illustrate  the  function  of  the  nerves. 

78.  Give  some  actions  that  are  performed  through  the  agency  of  the 
cerebro-spinal  nervous  system ;  through  the  agency  of  the  sympathetic 
or  ganglionic  nervous  system. 

79.  What  do  you  mean  by  a  reflex  movement? 

80.  What  is  the  necessity  for  these  two  nervous  systems  ? 

81.  Illustrate  the  connection  that  exists  between  the  two  svstems. 


62  HYGIENE. 

82.  What  are  vaso-motor  nerves ;  what  is  their  function  ? 

83.  How  do  emotions  affect  the  vaso-motor  nerves  ? 

84.  What  is  the  cerebrum,  and  what  is  its  function  ? 

85.  What  are  ganglia,  and  what  is  their  function  ? 

86.  What  does  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system  include  ? 

87.  What  kinds  of  tissue  form  the  brain,  and  what  is  the  function 
of  each  ? 

88.  What  is  the  organ  of  miud  ? 

89.  What  is  the  cerebellum,  and  what  is  its  function? 

90.  Illustrate  the  co-ordinating  function  of  the  cerebellum. 

91.  What  is  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  what  is  its  function  ? 

92.  What  is  the  mechanism  of  death  by  hanging? 

93.  What  is  the  spinal  cord  ;  what  is  it  continually  giving  off;  and 
how  does  it  ultimately  terminate  ? 

94.  What  is  sciatica? 

95.  How  do  you  liken  nervous  effects  to  electrical  effects? 

96.  Of  what  does  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  consist? 

97.  How  does  the  ganglion  differ  from  the  brain  ? 

98.  What  does  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  regulate  and  control  ? 


THE   CIRCULATION.  63 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  CIRCULATION-THE  HEART  AND  BLOOD- 
VESSELS. 

Everywhere  throughout  the  body,  into  every  or- 
gan and  tissue  and  part  thereof,  just  as  run  the 
nerves,  so  also  do  we  find  blood-vessels  distributed. 
As  it  is  the  function  of  the  nerve  to  give  power  to 
move,  so  is  it  the  function  of  the  blood-vessels  to  con- 
vey nourishment,  that  this  power  may  be  made  effect- 
ive. The  body  must  be  nourished  that  it  may  live, 
and  it  derives  this  nourishment  from  the  blood,  that  is 
forever  circulating,  from  the  moment  of  birth  to  the 
instant  of  death,  everywhere  throughout  the  body.  It 
is  the  blood  coursing  through  the  vessels  that  we  speak 
of  as  the  "Circulation,"''  and  in  the  performance  of 
the  function  of  circulation,  the  following  organs  are 
concerned : 

1.  The  Heart. 

2.  The  Arteries. 

3.  The  Capillaries. 

4.  The  Veins. 

Before  proceeding  to  study  each  of  these  parts  sepa- 
rate^, let  me  give  you  a  familiar  illustration  that  will 
make  very  clear  the  nature  and  the  function  of  the 
■'Circulation."      Let  us  suppose  an    ideal  city,  wherein 


64  HYGIENE. 

the  authorities  have  a  real  interest  in  the  welfare  of 
each  inhabitant.  Of  course,  it  is  necessary  that  every 
person  in  this  city  has  food  to  eat;  hence,  wagons, 
loaded  with  provisions,  are  continually  circulating 
throughout  the  streets  of  this  city,  from  which  the 
residents  of  each  house  may  select  that  particular 
food  which  they  require.  In  the  human  body,  the 
blood-vessels  are  the  streets  and  the  blood  is  the  food 
that  is  being  continually  carried  about  that  each  organ 
and  part  may  select  therefrom  that  which  it  specially 
desires  for  its  nourishment. 

Now,  what  is  blood  ? 

Blood  is  a  red  liquid  containing  certain  solid  ingre- 
dients which  are  called  corpuscles.      Most  of  these   are 


Fig.  17. 
Human  Blood-corpuscles  (highly  magnified).     From  a  photograph. 

disc-shajied  (Fig.   17)  and  red   in    color,  and   it   is  their 
red  color   that   gives  the  red  coloring   to  the  blood,  for 


THE   CIRCULATION.  65 

the  liquid  portion  of  the  blood  is,  itself,  not  red  in 
color.  There  are  also  in  the  blood  a  number  of  white 
or  colorless  corpuscles,  in  the  proportion  of  about  one 
of  the  white  to  350  of  the  red.  The  living  blood  may 
be   tabulated   as   follows : 

!  Liquor  Sanguinis  I 
a  r  i       n  1       f  Red  Discs )  o 

Solid  or  Corpuscle    (PaleCellg}l 

These  red  corpuscles  are  not  more  than  1-3200  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  there  are  about  250,000  mill- 
ions of  them  in  every  pound  of  blood.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  total  amount  of  blood  in  the  body  is 
about  1-14  of  the  whole  weight  of  the  body,  so  that  if 
you  weigh  126  pounds  there  will  be  about  nine  pounds 
of  blood  in  your  body,  and  this  will  give  us  the  really 
incredible  number  of  2,250,000  millioxs  of  these  little 
corpuscles  that  are,  at  this  moment,  circulating  through- 
out your  body.  I  have  made  this  statement  because 
it  will  probably  cause  you  to  think  that  this  red  blood 
corpuscle  must  be  quite  an  important  part  of  your 
body  and  well  worthy  of  consideration.  So  it  is,  and 
it  will  be  well  for  you  if  you  learn  to  treat  this 
little  organism  with  very  great  respect,  for  one  of  its 
chief  functions  is  to  convey  oxygen  to  the  various 
portions  of  the  body ;  and  so  necessary  is  oxygen  that 
if  you  were  deprived  of  it  you  could  not  live  for  five 
minutes. 

Now  that  we  know  what  blood  is,  let  us  see  how 
and  why  it  circulates  throughout  the  body.  The  blood- 
vessels are  tubes   capable  of   contraction,  and  expansion, 


m 


IIYCIENE. 


and   it   is   through   these   tubes    that   the   blood   is  pro- 
pelled by  the  heart. 

The  heart  is    a   double-acting  pump,  capable  of  both 


Fig.  18. 
Heart,  front  view. — 1,  right  ventricle;  2,  left  ventricle;  3  and  4,  right  auricle; 
5  and  6,  left  auricle ;  7,  pulmonary  artery  ;  8,  the  aorta  ;  9,  superior  vena 
cava;  10  and  11,  front  coronary  artery  and  vein  which  in  part  control  the 
blood-supply  of  the  substance  of  the  heart ;  12,  lymphatic  vessels. — From 
Walker's  Physiology.     Allyn  &  Bacon,  Boston. 

propulsion  and  suction.  Fig.  18  gives  us  an  anatomical 
view  of  the  heart  as  it  really  looks,  but,  recalling  how 
utterly   unintelligible   such   pictures  were  to   me   in  my 


Fig.  19.— The  Circulation  of  the  Blood. 

Red  lines — Arterial  blood. 
Black  lines — Venous  blood. 


THE   CIRCULATION.  07 

early  student  days,  I  have  had  prepared  figure  No.  19, 
which,  while  not  anatomically  correct,  will  yet  give  one 
a  very  clear  and  practical  comprehension  of  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood. 

The  heart  is  divided  into  four  cavities,  called 
the  right  and  left  ventricle  and  right  and  left  auricle, 
and  while  there  is  a  direct  communication  between  the 
auricle  and  ventricle  on  either  side,  the  only  communi- 
cation between  the  two  sides  of  the  heart  is  by  means 
of  the  circulation,  and  to  pass  from  one  side  of  the 
heart  to  the  other  it  is  necessary  to  travel  all  over 
the  body.  I  have  placed  the  ventricles  uppermost  in 
this  drawing,  as  it  makes  the  matter  more  clear,  but, 
in  truth,  the  auricles   are    located  above    the  ventricles. 

Now,  let  us  start  at  the  left  ventricle  and  follow 
the  blood  in  its  journey  of  nourishment  throughout  the 
body.  This  ventricle  is  full  of  blood,  and  it  contracts 
just  as  you  would  close  your  fist ;  contracting,  it  must 
necessarily  force  the  blood  out  of  it.  And  where  does 
the  blood  go  ?  Up  into  the  great  blood  vessel  of  the 
body,  called  the  aorta,  which  starts  from  this  ventricle. 
But  why  does  not  some  of  the  blood  go  into  the 
left  auricle  ?  Because  there  is  a  valve,  or  trap  door, 
between  the  ventricle  and  auricle  which,  as  the  ven- 
tricle contracts,  shuts  down  and  closes  the  opening 
between  the  ventricle  and  auricle,  leaving  thus  only 
one  opening  through  which  the  blood  can  escape,  and 
this  up  into  the  aorta.  Shortly  the  aorta  commences 
to  give  off  branches,  just  as  we  see  branches  springing 
from    the    trunk  of   a    tree;  each  branch  gives    off   still 


68 


HYGIENE. 


smaller  branches,  and  so  they  go  on  dividing  and  sub- 
dividing, just  as  do  the  branches  and  twigs  of  a  tree, 
until  they  have  reached  and  penetrated  every  part  and 
crevice  of  the  body. 

Even  the  heart  itself  is  supplied  with  blood-vessels; 
it  is  not  nourished  from  the  blood  within  its  cavity, 
but  has  small  blood-vessels  throughout  its  walls  from 
which  it  derives  its  nourishment. 

Throughout  all  of  these  divisions  and  sub-divisions, 
to  the  most  remote  portion  of  the 
body  this  blood  flows  through 
vessels  that  are  called  arteries. 
Each  little  artery  terminates  in  a 
vessel  called  a  capillary,  and  these 
minute  capillaries  form  a  network 
all  over  the  body.  From  these 
little  capillaries  still  other  vessels 
start,  and  they  are  called  veins ; 
two  little  veins  unite  to  form  one 
larger  one ;  two  of  these  larger  ones 
unite  to  form  a  third,  still  larger, 
and  so  just  as  the  aorta  by  a 
process  of  division  formed  itself 
into  an  infinite  number  of  little 
arteries,  so  this  infinite  number  of 
little  veins,  by  a  process  of  com- 
bination, form  themselves  into  two 
large  veins  which  carry  the  blood 
back  to  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart;  from  there  it  is 
passed    into    the    right    ventricle;    from  there   into    the 


Fig.  20. 
Relations  of  Blood-vessels, 


THE   CIRCULATION.  69 

lungs,  and  from  the  lungs  back  to  the  left  auricle  of 
the  heart,  thence  into  the  left  ventricle,  from  which  it 
again  starts  on  its  journey  through  the  body. 

Let  me  .make  this  clear  by  a  familiar  illustration. 
If  you  have  running  water  in  your  house,  you  will 
understand  that  this  water  is  brought  into  the  house, 
from  the  water-main  in  the  street,  in  one  pipe ;  when 
this  pipe  enters  the  house,  branches  are  taken  off  from 
it  to  the  rooms  in  which  the  water  is  to  be  used. 
If  there  are  twenty  spigots  in  your  house,  this  one 
pipe  will  divide  into  twenty  pipes,  each  one  supplying 
the  water  to  a  spigot  in  a  different  part  of  the  house. 
But  now  when  you  have  used  the  water  in  the  basin 
or  the  tub  or  the  closet,  it  is  soiled,  and  you  want 
to  get  rid  of  it;  each  one  of  these  twenty  spigots 
will  have  a  corresponding  waste  pipe  to  carry  away 
the  foul  water,  and  these  twenty  waste  pipes  will 
gradually  come  together  until  they  have  all  united 
into  one,  through  which  the  foul  water  is  carried 
away  from  your  house.  The  water  has  entered,  and 
it  leaves,  the  house  in  a  single  pipe,  but  during  its 
stay  it  has  circulated  through  twenty  different  pipes. 
This  illustration  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  will 
be  even  more  clear  when  you  remember  that  the  water 
which  enters  your  house  is  supposed  to  be  clear,  pure 
water,  and  that  which  leaves  it  foul,  dirty  water, 
made  so  by  the  admixture  therewith  of  the  decaying 
organic  matter  from  your  body  given  to  the  water  in 
the  act  of  washing;  because  the  blood  that  starts 
from   your  heart  to  circulate  throughout   your  arteries 


70  HYGIENE. 

is  supposed  to  be.  good,  pure,  healthy  blood,  capable 
of  giving  good  nourishment  to  your  body,  while  that 
which  returns  to  the  heart,  in  the  veins,  is  foul, 
dirty,  unhealthy  blood,  incapable  of  giving  healthy 
nourishment  to  the  body,  and  it  has  been  denied  by 
the  entrance  into  it  of  the  decaying  organic  particles 
of  your  body  which  it  has  gathered  up  (to  be  thrown 
out)  on  its  journey  through  the  body. 

Now  that  we  have  an  idea  of  7iow  the  blood  cir- 
culates, let  us  see  why  it  circulates.  The  arteries, 
we  must  understand,  are  merely  tubes  through  which 
the  blood  is  carried  about  the  body;  their  walls  are 
strong  and  firm,  and  no  blood  can  pass  through 
these  walls ;  but  when  these  arteries  have  terminated 
in  capillaries  we  find  a  different  structure.  The  walls 
of  the  capillaries  are  much  thinner,  and  are  pervious  to 
the  blood ;  the  capillaries  exist  everywhere  throughout 
the  body,  forming,  as  it  were,  a  mesh-work  or  net- 
work over  and  around  every  organ  and  part,  bringing 
the  blood  into  the  most  intimate  contact  with  the 
tissues,  when,  as  Dalton  says,  "The  nutritious  ingre- 
dients of  the  blood  transude  through  their  walls,  and 
are  appropriated  by  the  tissues  beyond.  In  the 
glandular  organs  they  supply  the  substance  requisite 
for  secretion ;  in  the  villi  of  the  intestine  they  take 
up  the  elements  of  the  digested  food;  in  the  lungs 
they  absorb  oxygen  and  exhale  carbonic  acid ;  in  the 
kidneys  they  discharge  the  products  of  destructive 
assimilation  collected  from  other  parts.  The  capillary 
circulation    thus    furnishes,    directly    or    indirectly,    the 


THE   CIRCULATION.  71 

materials  for   the   growth    and  renovation  of   the   entire 
body." 

Is  this  clear  ?  If  not,  let  ns  try  again.  The  blood, 
passing  through  the  arteries  reaches  the  capillaries,  and 
here  it  finds  thin  walls  through  which  it  can  pass  out 
into  the  tissues  to  nourish  them ;  the  dead  tissue 
that  is  no  longer  of  any  use  passes  through  the  walls 
of  these  capillaries  into  the  blood  within  them,  and 
the  blood,  now  loaded  with  impurities,  passes  on  into 
the  veins  and  is  returned  by  them  to  the  right  auricle 
of  the  heart. 

The  rapidity  of  the  current  of  blood  in  the  arteries 
is  much  greater  than  it  is  in  the  caj)illaries ;  indeed,  it 
is  estimated  that  the  blood  flows  360  times  faster  in 
the  aorta  than  it  does  in  the  caj)illaries.  This  is 
because  the  united  calibre  of  the  capillaries  is  so 
much  greater  than  the  united  calibre  of  the  arteries 
that  when  the  blood  flows  out  into  them  it  has  so 
much  more  space  in  which  to  spread  that  the  propul- 
sive power  from  behind  is  less  potent  for  speed ;  just 
as  would  be  the  case  if  we  were  to  turn  a  mighty 
torrent  of  water  into  numerous  channels,  the  aggre- 
gate area  of  which  would  be  much  greater  than  the  area 
of  the  original  stream ;  ultimately,  the  water  in  these 
little  streams  would  become  absolutely  sluggish. 

So  does  the  circulation  of  blood  in  the  capillaries 
become  comparatively  sluggish,  and  this  very  slowness 
of  circulation  favors  the  exudation  of  the  nutrient 
material,  just  as  it  would  be  much  easier  for  the 
passengers   to   leave   a   slowing,  creeping   train    than    it 


72  HYGIENE. 

would    be    for    them    to    escape    from    the    lightning 
express. 

Now  the  blood,  returning  to  the  heart  loaded  with 
impurities,  is,  from  the  heart,  pumped  into  the  lungs, 
where_,  through  the  process  that  there  takes  place, 
(which  we  will  describe  later  on),  it  is  relieved  of 
much   of  its   impurity. 

Although  we  have  said  that  the  blood  circulates 
much  more  slowly  through  the  capillaries  than  it  does 
through  the  arteries,  we  shall  be  surprised  when  we 
learn  with  what  wonderful  rapidity  the  circulation  is 
completed ;  for,  from  the  time  that  a  given  quantity  of 
blood  leaves  the  heart,  circulates  throughout  the  entire 
body  and  returns  again  to  the  heart,  not  more  than 
twenty  seconds  will  have  elapsed. 

Of  course,  you  are  already  prepared  to  answer  that 
the  heart  derives  its  power  to  alternately  contract  and 
relax,  and  to  propel  the  blood,  from  the  nerves  that 
are  supplied  to  it ;  and  you  remember  that  these  nerves 
are  derived  from  the  ganglionic  system,  that  the  con- 
traction of  the  heart  is  reflex  or  automatic,  and  that 
it  is  not  under  the  control  of  the  will. 

But  this  is  not  enough ;  it  will  not  do  merely  to 
give  the  heart  this  power  to  contract,  else  it  might 
run  wild.  Instead  of  contracting,  with  order  and  regu- 
larity, seventy  times  every  minute,  it  might  contract 
forty  times  one  minute ;  one  hundred  and  forty  times 
the  next  minute ;  eighty  times  the  third  minute,  and 
so  on.  This  would  never  do;  we  must  have  some 
order  and   regularity  about   the  vital   functions ;    hence, 


THE   CIRCULATION.  73 

we  find  that  the  heart  is  not  only  supplied  with  nerves 
that  enable  it  to  contract,  but  that  it  also  has  nerves 
that  regulate  and  control  these  actions.  Just  as  the 
good  driver  will  use  both  whip  and  reins,  the  one  to 
accelerate,  the  other  to  regulate  the  speed  of  his  horse, 
so  the  heart  has  two  sets  of  nerves,  the  one  to  accel- 
erate, the  other  to  regulate  and  control  its  action. 

I  have  already  told  you  about  the  red  corpuscles 
in  the  blood,  and  have  mentioned  that  there  are  also 
white  corpuscles  in  this  liquid.  I  would  have  you  not 
forget  these  white  corpuscles,  because,  as  you  will  see 
further  on,  according  to  the  theories  of  some  very 
eminent  authorities  they  play  a  most  important  role 
in  the  prevention  of  disease.  These  bodies  are  much 
larger  than  the  red  corpuscles,  and  are  found,  as 
already  stated,  in  the  blood  in  the  proportion  of  1 
of  the  white  to  about  350  of  the  red.  These  cor- 
puscles are  possessed  of  the  power  of  making  a  pecu- 
liar movement,  which  is  called  the  "Amoeboid  Move- 
ment," and  which  consists  in  the  alternate  protrusion 
and  retraction  of  different  points  of  their  little  bodies, 
whereby  they  are  enabled  to  move  from  place  to  place. 

The  veins,  through  which  the  blood  returns  to  the 
heart,  are  like  the  sewers  of  a  city;  they  are  the 
tubes  or  pipes  through  which  the  blood  that  has  been 
defiled  in  its  passage  throughout  the  body  passes  to 
the  various  organs  whose  duty  it  is  to  renovate  and 
purify  it. 


74  HYGIENE. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

99.   What  is  the  circulation,  and  -what  is  the  function  of  blood- 
vessels ? 

100.  What  organs  are  concerned  in  the  circulation  f 

101.  Give  a  familiar  illustration  of  the  circulation. 

102.  What  is  blood,  and  what  are  corpuscles? 

103.  What  is  a  prominent  function  of  these  corpuscles,  and  how 
would  you  demonstrate  their  importance  ? 

1 04.  Describe  the  heart. 

105.  Describe  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

106.  What  is  the  aorta,  and  how  does  it  branch  ? 

107.  WLat  are  arteries;  capillaries;  veins  f 

108.  Give  a  familiar  illustration  of  the   division  of   arteries  and 
combination  of  veins. 

109.  What  is  the  function  of  the   capillaries,  and  how   is   tissue 
nourished  ? 

110.  Describe  the  way  in   which  the  regular  action  of  the  heart  is 
maintained. 

111.  What  are  white  corpuscles,  and  what  is  their  importance? 

112.  What  is  the  amoeboid  movement? 

113.  What  are  the  veins,  and  what  is  their  function? 


AIR — OXYGEN — RESPIRATION.  75 


CHAPTER  VII. 

AIR— OXYGEN— RESPIRATION. 

It  is  possible  for  man  to  live  for  weeks  without 
food,  for  days  without  water,  but  he  could  not  live 
for  live  minutes  without  air.  If  you  doubt  this,  hold 
your  breath  and  see  how  many  minutes  will  elapse 
before  you  will  be  absolutely  compelled  to  take  a 
breath  whether  you  will  it  or  not.  Bread  is  said  to  be 
the  "staff  of  life,"  but  this  is  a  mistake;  air  is  the 
"staff  of  life,"  because  it  is  the  one  thing  without 
which  life  would  be  impossible,  and  it  is  one  particular 
ingredient  of  air  that  is  so  essential  to  life.  I  would 
that  I  could  burn  the  name  of  this  ingredient  so 
deeply  and  so  indelibly  upon  the  minds  of  every 
human  being,  that  it  would  be  ever  before  him.  This 
vital  necessity  is 

Oxygen. 

Oxygen  is  a  gas  everywhere  present  in  the  atmos- 
pjhere.  While  not  itself  capable  of  burning,  it  is 
impossible  for  anything  else  to  burn  unless  it  is  sup- 
plied with  oxygen.  That  the  tire  in  your  stove  may 
burn,  it  is  necessary  that  you  should  open  the  lower 
door  that  it  may  have  a  draft,  and  this  draft  means 
nothing    more   than    the    access   of   the   air,    containing 


76  HYGIENE. 

oxygen,  to  the  fire.  If  you  put  a  close-fitting  cap 
over  a  lighted  candle,  the  flame  is  at  once  extin- 
guished, because  the  oxygen  has  been  shut  off  from  it; 
if  you  place  a  burning  candle  in  a  glass  jar  that  has 
been  filled  with  oxygen,  you  will  at  once  note  a 
marked  increase  in  the  brilliancy  of  the  flame,  because 
the  oxygen  has  added  force  and  power  thereto.  All 
burning  or  combustion  is  attended  by  the  union  of  car- 
bon and  oxygen  and  the  resultant  formation  of  car- 
bonic acid,  which  is  a  combination  of  these  two 
elements.  That  which  occurs  in  combustion  of  articles 
in  general,  occurs  also  within  the  body  of  man, 
wherein  there  is  constantly  going  on  a  process  of  com- 
bustion or  burning;  oxygen  is  uniting  with  carbon  and 
carbonic  acid  is  being  formed,  and  this  process  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  life. 

Oxygen  is,  so  to  speak,  "nature's  stimulant;"  it  is 
the  agent  that  gives  us  power  to  live  healthy  lives,  and 
without  a  plentiful  supply  of  it,  healthy  life  is  impossi- 
ble. In  the  ordinary  amount,  or  proportion,  in  which 
oxygen  exists  in  the  atmosphere,  it  is  conducive  to 
healthy  life ;  in  excess,  it  so  stimulates  the  vital  func- 
tions, as  we  have  seen  that  it  does  'with  the  flame  of 
the  candle,  that  they  are  performed  with  unnatural 
activity,  and  we  live  our  lives  much  faster,  as  it  were. 

This  property  of  oxygen  is  entertainingly  described 
by  Jules   Verne,  in   his   little   book,    "Dr.  Ox." 

Dr.  Ox  is  a  scientist,  who  is  anxious  to  test  the 
effects  of  breathing  pure  oxygen  gas.  He  visits  a 
quiet,     old-fashioned    Dutch    town,    the    inhabitants    of 


AIR— OXYGEN — RESPIRATION.  77 

which   are   a  very   slow-moving,  phlegmatic,   easy-going- 
set  of  people. 

.  A  play  in  the  theatre  consumes  a  week's  time;  the 
councillors  take  an  almost  interminable  time  to  con- 
sider every  trivial  question  of  legislation  that  comes 
before  them;  the  pace  of  the  snail  would  be  marvel - 
ously  fast  when  compared  with  the  movement  of  these 
sluggish,  bnt  worthy  people. 

Dr.  Ox  secures  permission  to  introduce  illuminating 
gas  into  this  town,  and,  as  he  places  the  pipes  for  this 
gas  to  flow  through,  he  also,  surreptitiously,  arranges 
another  set  of  pipes,  running  to,  and  having  an  out- 
let, in  every  house  and  public  hall,  and  through  these 
pipes  he  delivers  to  the  people  pure  oxygen  gas. 

The  effect  of  the  inhalation  of  pure  oxygen  is  im- 
mediate, wonderful  and  ludicrous.  The  play  that  con- 
sumed a  week  is  rushed  through  in  one  hour;  the 
council  chamber  is  filled  with  excited,  turbulent,  talka- 
tive councillors,  who  become  so  excited  over  legislation 
that  a  rough  and  tumble  fight  ensues,  a  thing  hitherto 
unheard  of  in  this  ancient  town ;  the  streets  are  filled 
with  wildly  gesticulating  people,  and  there  is  every  evi- 
dence that  the  "town  has  gone  mad."  The  supply  of 
oxygen  is  turned  off  and  the  town  at  once  resumes  its 
wonted  aspect  of  calmness  and  serenity. 

This  fancy  sketch  is  based  upon  the  well-known 
physiological  property  possessed  by  oxygen  of  stimu- 
lating the  vital  powers;  but  it  is,  of  course,  overdrawn 
that  the  point  may  be  well  illustrated. 

While  oxygen  is  the  supporter  of  life,  pure  oxygen 


78  HYGIENE. 

would  be  too  strong  for  the  human  being  to  breathe, 
hence  it  is  found  in  the  atmosphere  diluted.  The  at- 
mosphere consists  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  21  parts  of  oxygen  and  79  parts  of  nitrogen 
in  every  100  parts  of  air. 

It  is  the  main  function  of  respiration  or  breath- 
ing to  take  into  the  lungs  this  oxygen  that  it  may 
be  distributed  therefrom  to  the  different  parts  of  the 
body.  I  would  dwell  very  fully  upon  the  question 
of  air  and  its  most  important  ingredient,  oxygen, 
because,  while  we  have  seen  that  it  is  absolutely 
essential  to  healthy  life,  yet  there  is  no  single 
article  necessary  to  life  of  which  the  average  human 
being  seems  so  much  afraid  as  he  is  of  pure  air  or 
oxygen. 

You  may  question  this  assertion,  because  you  have 
never  reflected  upon  it,  but,  before  we  get  through, 
you  will  be  prepared  to  admit  that  though  we  may 
deny  the  allegation  theoretically,  yet,  practically,  as 
evidenced  by  the  lives  that  we  lead,  we  are  very  much 
afraid  of  fresh  air. 

The  lungs  are  the  organs  of  respiration,  and  when 
we  inhale  or  ' '  breathe  in "  or  inspire,  we  draw  into 
the  lungs  a  certain  amount  of  oxygen.  You  will 
remember  that  the  blood  which  has  been  carried  to 
the  right  side  of  the  heart  by  the  veins  is  impure 
blood,  rendered  so  by  the  waste  or  debris  of  the 
body  which  it  has  gathered  up  in  its  circulation 
throughout  the  body.  This  impurity  consists  largely 
of    carbonic    acid ;    hence,  when   the    blood  is  pumped 


AIR — OXYGEN—  RESPIRATION.  79 

from  the  right  ventricle  of  the  heart  to  the  lungs  it 
is  loaded  down  with  carbonic  acid.  In  the  lungs,  as 
in  all  other  parts  of  the  body,  we  find  immense 
numbers  of  the  small,  thin-walled  blood-vessels  which 
we  have  called  capillaries;  when  the  blood  flows  into 
these  capillaries,  it  becomes,  you  remember,  compara- 
tively stagnant,  and  while  thus  almost  still,  the  car- 
bonic acid  passes  from  the  blood  through  the  walls 
of  the  capillaries  into  the  lungs,  while  the  oxygen 
that  we  have  inspired  passes  from  the  lungs  through 
the  walls  of  the  caxjillaries  into  the  blood.  The  blood 
that  goes  to  the  lungs  is  blue,  or  venous  blood ;  the 
blood  that  comes  from  the  lungs,  back  to  the  heart,  is 
red,  or  arterial  blood,  and  this  change  has  been 
brought  about  by  the  removal  of  carbonic  acid  from 
and  the  entrance  of  oxygen  into  the  blood. 

Now  we  exhale,  "breathe  out"  or  expire,  and  we 
discharge  from  the  lungs,  into  the  surrounding  atmos- 
phere, the  carbonic  acid  that  has  been  derived  from 
the  blood  in  the  process  of  its  purification.  We  must 
never  forget  the  sublime  truth  that  oxygen  is  not  only 
the  great  vivifler,  but  that  it  is  also  the  great  purifier 
of  nature. 

Therefore  we  may  define  "  respiration "  as  that 
function  by  which  oxygen  is  introduced  into  and 
carbonic  acid  is  taken  out  of  the  body, 

This  is  what  we  ordinarily  understand  as  respira- 
tion; it  is  that  which  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  obvious 
to  the  eye ;  but  wonderful  is  the  body  of  man ;  for 
in   addition    to    that    which    we    have    described,    there 


80  HYGIENE. 

goes  on,  within  the  innermost  recesses  of  the  body, 
another  process  of  respiration,  which  is  spoken  of  as 
' '  internal  respiration. ' ' 

When  the  oxygen  enters  the  lungs  it  passes 
through  the  walls  of  the  capillaries  into  the  blood, 
and  is  taken  up  by  the  red  corpuscles,  already 
described.  These  corpuscles  now  start  off  on  their 
journey  throughout  the  body,  and  when  they  reach 
the  capillary  circulation,  in  every  part  of  the  body, 
they  give  off  the  oxygen  which  they  have  carried 
from  the  lungs  to  the  different  tissues  that  require 
it  that  they  may  live,  and  they  take  up  from  these 
tissues  the  carbonic  acid  that  has  been  formed  as  the 
result  of  the  life  of  the  tissue,  and  they  carry  this 
carbonic  acid  back  to  the  lungs  to  be  thrown  out  of 
the  body. 

You  see  the  difference  in  these  two  respiratory 
functions.  In  the  lungs  oxygen  is  taken  in,  while 
carbonic  acid  is  given  out ;  in  the  tissues,  carbonic  acid 
is  taken  in,  while  oxygen  is  given  out.  These  red 
corpuscles  are,  therefore,  in  reality,  little  wagons  or 
conveyances,  whose  duty  it  is  to  convey  nourishment 
to  and  remove  waste  from  the  various  organs  and  tis- 
sues and  parts  of  the  body.  Do  you  not  here  again 
see  a  demonstration  of  the  ' '  Natural  Cycle  of  Organic 
Matter?" 

But  let  us  carry  this  "Cycle"  a  little  further. 
Vegetable'  life  also  has  the  function  of  respiration ;  it 
breathes  just  as  man  does,  but  it  absorbs  carbonic  acid 
and   gives  off  oxygen,   and  it  is  in   this  way  that  the 


AIK — OXYGEN — RESPIRATION. 


81 


Fig.  21.— The  Cycle  of  Oxyen. 
The  dotted  lines  represent  carbonic  acid. 
The  black  lines  represent  oxygen. 


82  HYGIENE. 

atmosphere,  rendered  foul  by  the  respiration  of  man, 
is  purified  by  the  respiration  of  plant  life  and  ren- 
dered once  more  fit  for  human  respiration. 

Now  we  have  seen  that  oxygen  is  carried  to  every 
portion  of  the  body  by  the  red  blood  corpuscles,  and 
that  this  is  the  chief  function  or  duty  of  these  little 
bodies,  and  when  Ave  remember  that  you  have  2,225,000 
millions  of  them  in  your  body,  constantly  employed 
in  the  conveyance  of  oxygen,  it  will  be  easy  enough 
to  understand  how  very  essential  oxygen  must  be  to 
the  healthy  life  of  the  body.  You  will  remember  that 
heat  is  being  continually  generated  within  your  bodies, 
and  it  is  being  made  therein  by  the  same  process 
exactly  by  which  it  is  produced  in  the  stove,  namely, 
by  the  union  of  oxygen  and  carbon,  which  is  con- 
tinually taking  place;  and  heat  being  continually  thus 
generated  in  all  the  tissues  and  organs  and  paits  of 
the  body,  the  degree  of  heat  being  regulated,  as 
already   explained,    by  evaporation   from   the   surface. 

Ordinary  illuminating  gas  is  composed  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen.  When  you  turn  it  on  and  apply  a 
lighted  match  you  start  a  process  whereby  the  carbon 
of  the  gas  unites  with  the  oxygen  in  the  air  of  the 
room  and  this  union  is  attended  with  the  production 
of  heat,  just  as  it  is  in  the  recesses  of  the  human 
body. 

Here,  then,  you  see  that  oxygen  is  not  only  neces- 
sary for  nourishment,  but  that  it  is  the  agent  for 
producing  bodily  heat,  without  which  life  would  be 
impossible. 


AIR — OXYGEN — RESPIRATION. 


83 


Now  you  understand  that 
it  is  the  red  blood  corpuscle 
that  carries  the  life-giving 
element,  oxygen,  to  the 
various  parts  of  the  body. 
Let  us  get  this  clear  by  a 
familiar  illustration.  Fig.  22 
represents  the  human  cir- 
culation, while  Fig.  23  rep- 
resents the  circulation  of 
a  city;  and  between  these 
two  we  will  find  many 
points  of  similarity. 

Let  us  take  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  for  instance, 
and  let  us  take  all  the 
people  away  from  it.  We 
have  the  streets  and  the 
houses  and  the  electric  wires 
and  the  Mater  pipes  and 
the  sewers,  just  as  we  have 
the  organs  and  the  muscles 
and  the  blood-vessels  and 
the  nerves  in  a  dead  human 
body.  Keep  the  people  away 
from  the  city  for  a  time 
and  it  would  fall  into 
decay,     just    as    would    the 


dc.'ZZ&l'^iDTi'^, 


Fig.  22. 
Diagram  of  the  Circulation, 
human     body    if    deprived   of      The  white  lines  are  the  arteries,  the 
ii n jj  ,-,  . .  black  lines  are  the  veins.     The 

blood  and  oxygen ;   the  city  iungs  surround  the  heart. 


84  HYGIENE. 

and  the  human  body  alike  require  constant  attention 
and  repair. 

Let  us,  then,  imagine  a  completed  city,  so  far  as 
streets  and  buildings  and  wires  are  concerned,  and  let  us 
drop  into  this  city  a  lot  of  people,  and,  at  once,  the 
city  is  alive,  so  to  speak ;  the  electric  light  shines ; 
stores  are  opened;  factory  whistles  blow;  and  the  thou- 
sand and  one  things  that,  in  the  aggregate,  constitute 
the  vitality  of  a  community,  become  manifest.  To  one 
who  views  the  city  at  two  o'clock  in  the  morning  it 
is  as  a  dead  body;  the  parts  of  the  city  are  all 
there,  but  no  life  is  evident.  It  is  the  living,  moving, 
acting  individual  human  beings  that  give  life  to  the 
city  of  wood  and  stone  and  bricks ;  so  to  the  city  of 
flesh  and  bone  (the  human  body),  it  is  the  aggregate 
labor  of  the  ever-circulating  individual  blood  corpuscle 
that  gives  it  life,  activity,  vitality. 

My  fancy  leads  me  to  liken  the  individual  man, 
in  his  relation  to  the  vitality  of  the  city,  to  the  indi- 
vidual blood  corpuscle  in  its  relation  to  the  life  of  the 
human  body. 

This  little  corpuscle  is,  relatively,  to  the  human 
body  nearly  as  large  as  is  the  man  when  compared  to 
the  city  that  he  inhabits.  Through  the  blood-vessels  of 
the  body  continually  journey  these  little  corpuscles, 
carrying  life  to  all  the  parts  thereof;  through  the  ves- 
sels, or  streets  of  the  city,  continually  travel  these  indi- 
vidual human  beings,  carrying  vitality  to  all  the  parts 
thereof. 

Now,    we   already  know  that  when  these   corpuscles 


Fig.  23.— Diagram  of  the  Municipal  Circulation. 


ah: — oxygen — Respiration.  85 

have  made  the  circuit  of  the  body,  they  are  worn  out; 
they  are  loaded  down  and  oppressed  with  carbonic  acid 
and,  before  they  are  ready  for  more  work,  they  must 
be  .carried  to  the  lungs  to  be  aerated,  to  be  invigor- 
ated, to  be  rejuvenated  by  the  life-giving  oxygen  of  the 
atmosphere.  So  the  individual  man,  after  his  day  of 
labor,  is  worn  out,  and  he  must  be  refreshed  ere  he 
is  able  to  continue   his   work. 

In  the  very  heart  of  Philadelphia  is  a  great  rail- 
road station  into  which  are  continually  arriving,  and 
from  which  are  constantly  departing,  trains  loaded  with 
the  business  men  of  the  city  whose  homes  are  in  the 
adjacent   country. 

When  I  stand  in  front  of  this  station  of  a  cool, 
fresh,  fall  morning,  and  watch  the  rosy-cheeked,  vig- 
orous, healthy-looking  men  and  women,  fresh  from  the 
country,  being  pumped,  so  to  speak,  from  the  station 
into  the  street,  and  branching  into  the  different  streets 
of  the  city,  carrying  the  vitality  of  the  country  into 
even  the  most  remote  corners  thereof,  I  am  forcibly 
reminded  of  the  function  of  the  human  heart ;  and 
when,  at  evening  time,  these  self-same  individuals,  tired 
and  jaded  with  their  day's  work,  are  sucked  into  the 
station  and  again  pumped  out  into  the  country  to  be 
re-invigorated,  aerated,  oxygenated,  as  it  were,  I  am 
more   forcibly  reminded  of   my   morning's   fancy. 

The  blood,  pure  and  fresh  from  the  lungs,  is 
pumped  all  over  the  body,  as  a  vitalizer;  received  back 
into  the  heart  impure,  it  is  pumped  into  the  lungs  to 
be  purified ;  back  again  it  travels  from  the  lungs  to  the 


86  HYGIENE. 

heart  once  more  pure  and  fresh,  ready  to  carry  vitality 
to   the  body. 

The  aggregation  of  individuals,  pure  and  fresh  from 
the  country,  is  pumped  from  the  station  all  over  the 
city,  as  a  vitalizer;  received  back  into  the  station 
impure,  it  is  pumped  into  the  country  to  be  purified; 
back  again  it  travels  from  the  country  to  the  station, 
once  more  pure  and  fresh,  ready  and  able  to  carry 
vitality  to  the  city.  Again,  if  when  the  blood  is 
pumped  into  the  lungs  it  meets  there  an  impure  atmos- 
phere, deficient  in  oxygen,  it  must  be  evident  that 
when  it  starts  again  on  its  journey  of  vitality  it  will 
not  be  as  vigorous,  healthy  blood  as  it  would  have 
been  had  it  been  subjected  to  a  purer  atmosphere  in 
the  lungs.  Is  it  too  much  to  claim  that  the  individual 
who,  after  an  exhausting  day's  work,  seeks  his  recu- 
peration in  the  more  or  less  impure  atmosphere  of  a 
city,  will  not  be  as  healthy  and  vigorous  in  the  morn- 
ing, as  he  who  rushes  off  to  the  pure,  life-giving 
atmosphere  of  the  country  ?  As  the  blood  corpuscle 
must  be  thoroughly  oxygenated  in  the  lungs,  so  the 
city  corpuscle  (the  individual  man,  woman  or  child) 
must  be  well  oxygenated  in  the  pure  air  of  the 
country,  else  the  human  body,  in  the  first  instance, 
and  the  body  politic — the  community,  the  city — in 
the  second  instance,  will  not  achieve  the  greatest 
measure  of  development,  of  material  prosperity,  of 
which   each   is   capable. 

The    lungs    are     two    in    number     and    are    located 
one   in  either  side  of  the  chest,   or  that  cavity  bounded 


AIR — OXYGEN — RESPIRATION. 


87 


by  the  ribs.  They  are  sponge-like  in  structure,  and  are 
capable  of  being  compressed  into  a  very  small  space  or 
of  being  very  greatly  distended.  Into  the  tissue  of 
each  lung  run  a  great  number  of  little  tubes,  called 
bronchial  tubes;  and  when  you  speak  of  bronchitis,  it 
means  an  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  these 


little  tubes.  When  the  air  is  taken  in  through  the 
nose  (as  it  always  should  be)  it  is  drawn  down  through 
a  single  tube  called  the  larynx;  still  further  down,  it 
goes  through  a  continuation  of  the  larynx,  called  the 
trachea;  shortly,  the  trachea  divides  into  two  tubes, 
called    respectively   the    right   and  left  bronchial   tubes,- 


88 


HYGIENE. 


one  tube  passing  into  each  lung,  to  give  off  branches, 
divide  and  sub-divide  until  the  branches  have  reached 
each  and  every  portion  of  the  lung  tissue.  I  have 
said  that  the  lung  is  sponge-like  in  structure;  just  as 
the  sponge  can  absorb  water  into  the  little  holes  or 
cavities  with  which  it  is  everywhere  riddled,  so  the 
lung  tissue  is  full  of  little  elastic  bags  or  sacs, 
called    pulmonary     vesicles,    and    it    is     into     one     of 


Fig.  25.— The  Lungs. 


these  little  vesicles  that  each  ultimate  branch  of  the 
bronchial  tube  terminates.  These  vesicles  are  very  thin, 
elastic  and  distensible,  and  on  their  outer  wall  is  found  a 
network  of  the  capillary  blood-vessels,  already  described. 
When  the  air  enters  these  little  vesicles  they 
become   distended  thereby   and   through  their  thin  walls 


A  I R — OXYGEN RESPIRATION.  89 

the  oxygen  passes  to  enter  the  blood  in  the  capillaries 
on  their  other  side,  while,  inversely,  the  carbonic  acid 
in  the  blood  passes  through  the  wall  of  the  vesicle, 
to  its  cavity,  to  be  thrown  out  in  the  act  of  expiration. 

The  lungs  might  be  likened  to  a  number  of  bunches 
of  grapes  (Fig.  25).  Let  the  main  stem  represent  the 
windpipe ;  (the  larynx  and  trachea)  each  branch-stem 
will  represent  a  branching  bronchial  tube ;  while  the 
ultimate  little  branches,  each  terminating  in  a  grape, 
will  illustrate  the  ultimate  little  bronchial  tubes,  each 
terminating  in  a  pulmonary  vesicle;  and  if  we  imagine 
each  grape  to  be  inclosed  in  a  network  of  little  tubes, 
we  can  understand  the  arrangement  of  the  capillary 
vessels   around   each   air  vesicle.     (See   Fig.    26.) 

The  movements  of  respiration  are  both  voluntary 
and  involuntary ;  they  are  reflex  or  automatic,  as  we 
have  seen  that  all  the  vital  functions  are,  but  their 
force  can  be  increased  by  the  use  of  muscles  that  are 
directly  controlled  by  the  will. 

A  person  who  may  be  unconscious  will  yet  breathe, 
and  he  does  so  by  the  action  of  muscles  that  derive 
their  power  to  act  from  the  sympathetic  or  ganglionic 
nervous  system,  these  movements  being  reflex  and 
involuntary.  It  is,  however,  utterly  impossible  for 
our  will  to  control  the  function  of  respiration,  so  as 
to  stop  it,  save  to  a  very  limited  degree ;  while  it  is 
very  easy  for  us  to  use  our  will  to  increase  the  force 
and  power  of  this  function,  from  which  we  learn  a 
valuable  lesson,  to  be  discussed  further  on.  You  may 
"hold   your   breath' '    for   a   minute   or    so,   but   it   will 


90 


HYGIENE. 


then  happen  that  the  "necessity  for  respiration"  will 
overcome  the  strongest  will.  The  demand  of  the  sys- 
tem for  oxygen  is  so  imperative  that  it  is  not  within 
the  power  of  the  strongest  will  to  refuse  obedience 
to  it  for  more  than  a  minute  or  so ;  it  would  be 
simply   impossible   for   a   person    to   commit    suicide   by 


Fig.  26. 

refusing  to  breathe,  because  the  reflex  muscles  would 
prove  stronger  than  his  will ;  yet  this  same  person 
could  starve  himself  to   death  by  refusing   to   eat. 

Is  not  this  another  evidence  of  the  prime  necessity 
of  oxygen  to  healthy  life  ? 

The   diaphragm  (pronounced   diafram)   is   the  chief 


AIR — OXYGEN — RESPIRATION.  91 

muscle  of  inspiration,  though  it  is  aided  by  many 
others.  It  is  a  large  muscle  that  divides  the  chest 
from  the  abdomen,  and  it  is  located,  roughly  speak- 
ing, at  the  base  of  the  ribs,  running  from  one  side 
to  the  other  and  from  the  front  to  the  back  of  the 
body.  •  Upon  this  muscle  the  lower  ends  of  the  lungs 
rest.  It  is  an  involuntary  or  reflex  muscle,  contract- 
ing and  relaxing  about  eighteen  times  in  every  min- 
ute. When  this  muscle  contracts  it  is  drawn  down- 
wards, the  cavity  of  the  chest  is  enlarged,  and,  since 
"nature  abhors  a  vacuum,"  the  air  rushes  into  the 
lungs  to  fill  them,  to  swell  them  up,  and  thus  fill  the 
increased  capacity  of  the  chest,  which  otherwise  would 
be  full  of  nothingness,  a  condition  that  will  not  be 
tolerated  by  nature.  As  you  are  reading  this  book, 
and  breathing  naturally,  stop  for  a  moment  and  take  a 
long  breath ;  now  you  have  called  into  play  the  acces- 
sory muscles  of  respiration,  you  are  using  the  voluntary 
muscles :  your  will  has  commanded  the  muscles  of  your 
chest,  attached  to  your  ribs,  to  contract;  they  have 
obeyed,  and,  in  doing  so,  have  raised  your  ribs  so  as 
to  still  further  increase  the  capacity  of  your  chest,  and 
more  air  must  rush  in  to  fill  this  extra  space.  Now 
why  do  these  reflex  or  involuntary  muscles  contract, 
what  excites  them  to  action,  what  is  the  cause  of  respi- 
ration ?  The  presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  blood 
and  the  necessity  for  its  removal  is  the  exciting  cause 
of  respiration ;  this  carbonic  acid,  offensive  to  the 
nerves,  and  poisonous  to  the  body  at  large,  so  impresses 
the   nerves,    that    they   demand    its    removal,   and    they 


92  HYGIENE. 

secure  this  removal  by  compelling  the  muscles  of  res- 
piration to  act  as  we  have  described.  Therefore,  we  can 
say  that  the  presence  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  blood  and 
the  necessity  for  its  removal,  with  the  deficiency  of 
oxygen  in  the  blood  and  the  demand  for  its  increase, 
are  the  causes  of  respiration. 

Besides  the  ordinary  acts  of  respiration,  the 
muscles  of  respiration  are  capable  of  a  series  of 
movements  of  an  involuntary  reflex  nature  indicative 
of  certain  emotions  and  mental  states. 

Coughing  is  a  violent  expiratory  movement  caused 
by  some  stimulus  applied  to  some  portion  of  the  air 
passages,  and  is  the  effort  of  nature  to  force  out,  by 
a  violent  passage  of  the  air  outwards,  whatever  may 
be  causing  the  irritation. 

Sneezing  is  caused  by  a  stimulus  applied  to  the 
nose  or  eyes,  and  consists  of  a  deep  inspiration,  fol- 
lowed by  a  sudden  .and  violent  expiration,  the  effort 
here  again  being  made  to  dislodge  the  irritating  article 
by  the  sudden  forcing  of  a  current  of  air  against  it. 
The  entrance  of  dust  into  the  nostril,  by  acting  as  an 
irritant,  will  cause  the  act  of  sneezing  in  the  effort 
of  nature  to  get  rid  of  the  dust.  Sneezing  is  a  purely 
reflex  act,  since  it  is  impossible  to  produce  it  volun- 
tarily, except  indirectly  by  irritating  the  lining  mem- 
brane of  the  nostril. 

Laughing  consists  of  a  full  inspiration,  followed 
by  a  series  of  very  short,  rapid,  jerky  expiratory 
efforts.  The  facial  muscles  are,  at  the  same  time, 
thrown  into  a  characteristic  set  of  movements. 


AIR — OXYGEN — RESPIRATION.  93 

Crying  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  short,  sudden 
expirations,  accompanied  by  peculiar  facial  contortions, 
and  the  flow  of  tears. 

Sobbing  consists  of  a  rapid  series  of  jerky  inspira- 
tions, causing  but  little  air  to  enter  the  chest,  fol- 
lowed by  one  long  expiration. 

Sighing  is  a  long,  slow  inspiration,  quickly  fol- 
lowed by  a  corresponding  expiration. 

Yawning  is  a  very  long,  deep  inspiration,  com- 
pletely filling  the  chest.  It  is  accompanied  by  a 
peculiar  depression  of  the  lower  jaw,  wide-open  mouth, 
facial  movements,  and,  commonly,  stretching  of  the 
limbs. 

Hiccough  is  an  unexpected  inspiratory  spasm, 
chiefly  of  the  diaphragm,  the  entrance  of  the  air 
being  checked  by  the  sudden  closure  of  the  glottis. 

You  now  understand  that  oxygen  is  a  necessity  of 
life,  and  you  understand  that  the  air  expired  from 
the  lungs  is  poor  in  oxygen  and  rich  in  carbonic 
acid,  and  that  the  expired  air  is,  therefore,  unfit  to 
sustain  healthy  animal  life  until  it  has  been  purified 
by  the  respiration  of  vegetable  life. 

To  impress  this  truth  upon  your  minds  in  a  prac- 
tical way,  I  will  give  you  some  historical  facts  to 
demonstrate  it. 

In  the  year  1756  the  half -civilized  Nabob  of  Cal- 
cutta confined,  for  only  one  night,  one  hundred  and 
forty-six  men  in  a  cell  known  as  "The  Black  Hole 
of  Calcutta,"  18  feet  long  by  14  feet  wide,  with  two 
small   windows.     The    following    morning   one    hundred 


94  HYGIENE. 

and  twenty-three  dead  bodies  were  taken  out,  and 
twenty-three  beings  who  could  scarcely  be  said  to  be 
alive. 

In  1848  two  hundred  deck  passengers  of  the 
steamer  Londonderry,  on  her  passage  by  way  of 
Liverpool  to  America,  were  ordered  below  by  the  cap- 
tain, on  account  of  stormy  weather,  into  a  hold  that 
was  18  feet  long  by  11  feet  wide  and  7  feet  high. 
The  hatches  were  fastened  down,  and  when  they  were 
opened  the  next  morning,  seventy-two  dead  bodies 
were  found  and  several  of  the  remainder  were  dying. 

In  1750  forty  persons  perished  from  putrid  fever 
caused  by  breathing  the  foul  air  that  issued  from  the 
prisoner's  dock  of  the  "Old  Bailey  Prison.1'  The 
deaths  in  all  these  cases  (says  Dr.  A.  N.  Bell,  who 
records  them)  were  caused  by  the  repeated  respira- 
tion of  the  same  air,  with  its  constantly  accumulating 
load  of  carbonic  acid  and  other  poisons,  exhaled  from 
the  lungs  and  skin,  which  exposure  to  the  free  atmos- 
phere would  have  wholly  dissipated  and  destroyed. 

As  I  finished  the  last  sentence  I  was  called  hur- 
riedly to  a  patient  whose  case  will  serve  to  clearly 
point  a  prominent  fact  in  the  physiology  of  respira- 
tion. This  patient  was  in  the  last  stages  of  consump- 
tion. Every  part  of  his  body  was  extremely  weak, 
and  his  heart  participated  in  this  general  weakness ; 
lie  was  gasping  for  breath,  complaining  that  he  was 
suffocating.  He  was  breathing  32  times  in  every  min- 
ute. (You  remember  that  about  18  times  per  minute 
is   normal.)      Now,   why  ?      Because    his    heart   was  so 


AIR — OXYGEN — RESPIRATION.  95 

weak  that  it  was  not  able  to  pump  enough  blood 
into  his  lungs  to  receive  and  convey  to  the  tissues 
of  the  body  the  requisite  amount  of  oxygen.  His 
distress  was  referred  by  him  to  his  chest;  he  was 
short  of  breath ;  but  to  the  eye  and  the  ear  of  the 
physician  every  little  particle  of  tissue  in  this  man's 
body  was  short  of  oxygen,  and  it  was  crying  out  for 
more.  So  little  blood  was  being  sent  to  his  lungs  by 
his  weakened  heart  that  he  was  breathing  twice  as 
fast  as  normal  in  his  effort  to  give  this  blood  sufficient 
oxygen;  but  yet  the  supply  was  not  equal  to  the 
demand,  the  tissues  required  more,  and  he  was  fran- 
tically trying  to  supply  the  demand. 

I  gave  him  some  medicine  to  stimulate  and  increase 
the  power  of  his  heart;  in  ten  minutes  the  action 
of  this  organ  was  perceptibly  strengthened,  his  respira- 
tions dropped  from  32  to  20,  more  blood  was  going 
to  the  lungs;  the  demand  of  the  tissues  for  oxygen 
was  being  met,  and  the  distressing  sense  of  impend- 
ing suffocation  disappeared. 

To  go  back  from  this  digression.  We  spoke  of 
other  poisons  besides  carbonic  acid  being  exhaled 
from  the  lungs.  The  expired  air  also  contains  traces 
of  the  following  impurities :  ammonia,  hydrogen,  car- 
buretted  hydrogen,  organic  matter.  These,  and  prob- 
ably other  impurities,  give  the  breath  its  peculiar 
odor  and  noxious  properties;  for  an  atmosphere  ren- 
dered 'k  stuffy"  by  expired  air  is  much  more  injurious 
to  health  than  an  atmosphere  in  which  a  similar 
deficiency  of    oxygen    or    excess    of    carbonic    acid    has 


96  HYGIENE. 

beeu  artificially  produced  by  chemical  means.  This 
fact  is  most  important  when  calculating  the  ventilation 
required  for  hygienic  purposes. 

The  organic  matter  discharged  in  expiration  is  most 
actively  poisonous,  so  much  so  that  the  accumulation, 
on  a  window  pane,  from  the  expired  breath  of  a 
human  being  will  produce  instant  death  if  injected 
under  the  skin  of  a  rabbit. 

You  remember  that  oxygen  exists  in  the  atmos- 
phere in  the  proportion  of  21  parts  in  every  100; 
if  the  proportion  should  get  as  low  as  7|  parts, 
a  sense  of  suffocation  would  be  experienced,  and 
if  it  gets  as  low  as  3  parts,  death  rapidly 
ensues.  This  was  what  happened  in  the  cases  that 
we  have  described.  These  persons  breathing  and 
re-breathing  the  same  air  all  night  consumed  the 
oxygen  and  gave  out  carbonic  acid ;  there  was  no 
chance  for  this  air  to  give  up  its  carbonic  acid  to 
vegetable  life  and  absorb  oxygen  therefrom ;  hence 
the  time  arrived  when  there  was  less  than  -three  parts 
of  oxygen  in  every  one  hundred  parts  of  the  atmos- 
phere of  the  apartment,  and  the  death  of  the  occu- 
pants was  the  result. 

Connected  with  the  function  of  respiration  is  the 
voice ;  the  voice  is  a  wind  instrument,  just  as  is  the 
cornet  or  the  flute.  Any  wind  instrument  makes 
sound  by  the  passage  of  air  through  openings,  and 
the  various  notes  or  tones  are  produced  by  enlarging 
or  contracting  the  calibre  of  these  openings.  The 
violin   makes    sound    by   scratching    the   strings,    which 


AIR — 0 X  Y <  i  E X —  RESPIRA T ION.  97 

starts  them  into  motion,  and  this  motion  imparted  to 
the  air  sets  it  into  vibration,  and  in  this  way  the 
sounds  of  music  are  produced. 

So  the  voice  which,  being  natural,  is  therefore,  of 
course,  the  most  perfect  of  musical  instruments,  pro- 
duces sound  by  the  passage  of  air  through  openings 
and  against  cords,  or  strings,  which  this  air  sets  into 
motion.  The  organ  of  voice  is  called  the  larynx,  and 
it  is  that  part  of  the  throat  that  stands  out  prominently 
and  is  known,  popularly,  as  Adam's  apple.  The 
human  voice  is  produced  by  an  expiratory  blast  of  air 
being  forced  through  a  narrow  opening  at  the  top  of 
the  windpipe,  and  this  opening  is  called  the  glottis. 
This  glottis,  which  lies  in  the  lower  part  of  the  larynx, 
or  "Adam's  apple,"  is  bounded  on  each  side  by  the 
edges  of  thin,  elastic,  membranous  folds  that  project 
into  the  air  passages.  These  membranous  folds,  which 
are  called  the  vocal  cords,  are  set  vibrating  by  the 
current  of  air  from  below,  and,  in  turn,  communicate 
their  vibrations  to  the  air  in  the  air  passages  situated 
aboVe  them.  In  his  '"Manual  of  Physiology,"  Dr. 
Yeo  says  that  the  vocal  apparatus  produces  sound  in 
the  same  manner  as  a  musical  instrument  of  the  reed- 
pipe  variety.  If  we  compare  it  with  the  pipe  of  an 
organ,  we  find  all  the  parts  of  the  latter  represented. 
The  lungs  within  the  chest  act  as  the  bellows."  The 
bronchial  tubes  and  the  trachea*  are  the  supply  pipes 
and  air  box.     The  vocal  cords  are  the  vibrating  tongues ; 

*The  trachea  is  a  tube  connecting  the  larynx  above  with  the  bronchial  tubes 
below.    See  Fig.  24. 


98  HYGIENE. 

while  the  larynx,  mouth,  and  nose  act  as  the  accessory 
or  resonating  pipes.  The  blast  of  air  is  produced  and 
regulated  by  the  muscles  of  respiration,  while  the  spe- 
cial muscles  of  the  larynx,  by  enlarging  or  contracting 
the  glottis,  and  by  stretching  (making  more  tense) 
or  relaxing  the  vocal  cords,  regulate  the  pitch  of  the 
notes  produced.  Other  sets  of  muscles,  by  altering  the 
conditions  of  the  resonating  pipes,  give  rise  to  many 
modifications  in  the  vocal  tones,  and  thus  produce  what 
is  called  speech.  Not  only  do  the  lungs  and  the  larynx 
and  trachea  take  part  in  the  production  of  speech,  but 
the  tongue,  the  lips,  the  cheeks  and  the  teeth — all,  by 
modifying  the  way  in  which  the  air  leaves  the  mouth, 
have  their  part  in  regulating  speech.  You  all  know 
how  imperfect  is  the  speech  of  a  person  who  has  no 
teeth,  and,  in  like  manner,  one  whose  tongue,  lips  or 
cheeks  are  paralyzed  cannot  speak  distinctly.  For 
instance,  if  you  undertake  to  pronounce  the  letters  b, 
2?,  f,  V,  note  how  the  sound  is  produced  through  the 
agency  of  the  lips ;  and  if  the  muscles  of  the  lips  were 
paralyzed,  it  would  be  utterly  impossible  for  you*  to 
pronounce  these  letters. 

Now  say  t,  d,  s,  I.  See  how  the  tongue  is  pushed 
either  against  the  roof  of  the  mouth  or  the  teeth,  and 
try  to  say  these  letters  without  allowing  your  tongue 
to  do  so ;  it  is  impossible. 

So,  then,  we  understand  that  the  organs  of  speech 
are  the  lungs,  bronchial  tubes,  trachea,  larynx,  mouth, 
cheeks,  lips,  nose,  tongue,  and  teeth;  and  that  for  per- 
fect speech  all  of  these  parts  are  essential. 


AIR — OXYGEIN — RESPIRATION.  99 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

114.  What  is  the  "  staff  of  life  ? " 

115.  What  is  oxygen? 

116.  How  do  you  prove  that  oxygen  supports  combustion? 

117.  What  is  nature's  stimulant?  how  does  Jules  Verne  demon- 
strate this  property  of  oxygen  ? 

118.  In  what  proportion  is  oxygen  found  in  the  atmosphere?  why 
is  it  diluted  ? 

119.  What  is  the  main  function  of  respiration  and  what  are  the 
organs  thereof?  what  takes  place  in  the  lungs? 

120.  What  is  internal  respiration  ?  describe  it. 

121.  Describe  the  cycle  of  oxygen. 

122.  Give  a  familiar  illustration  of  the  oxygen-bearing  function  of 
the  red  corpuscle. 

128.  Compare  the  human  circulation  with  that  of  a  city. 

124.  Describe  the  location  and  make-up  of  the  lungs ;  what  is  the 
larynx;  the  trachea;  pulmonary  vesicles ?  what  takes  place  in  these 
vesicles  ? 

125.  Are  the  respiratory  movements  voluntary  ? 

126.  Is  the  necessity  for  oxygen  imperative? 

127.  What  is  the  diaphragm  .'  describe  the  mechanism  of  respiration. 

128.  What  is  the  exciting  cause  of  the  respiratory  act  ? 

129.  Describe  the  special  movements  of  the  muscles  of  respiration  ; 
coughing;  sneezing;  laughing;  crying;  sobbing;  sighing;  yawning; 
hiccough. 

130.  Give  some  illustrations  of  the  fatal  effects  of  a  deficiency  of 
oxygen. 

131.  What  does  the  expired  breath  contain  besides  carbonic  acid  ? 

132.  What  is  the  lowest  percentage  of  oxygen  in  the  air  that  is 
compatible  with  life  ? 

133.  Describe  the  organs  and  mechanisms  of  voice  ;  what  is  the 
r/lottis  f  what  are  the  vocal  cords  ? 


100  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
VENTILATION-HEATING. 

Having  said  so  much  about  oxygen,  it  will  be  most 
appropriate  to  now  take  up  the  subject  of  ventilation, 
because  ventilation  simply  means  (and  it  means  nothing 
more)  a  plentiful  supply  of  oxygen  to  the  human  body. 
Ventilation  is  an  unknown  and  an  unneeded  word  to 
the  aborigines  whose  lives  are  passed  constantly  in 
the  open  air ;  it  is  a  word  born  of  the  necessities  of 
artificial  civilization.  Adam  and  Eve  were  familiar  with 
the  uses  of  oxygen,  but  they  knew  not  the  word  ven- 
tilation. Does  it  not  seem  strange  that  with  oxygen 
everywhere  present  in  the  atmosphere,  knowing  how 
absolutely  necessary  it  is  to  healthy  life,  costing  abso- 
lutely nothing,  being  boundlessly  accessible  to  the  poor- 
est as  well  as  the  richest  person,  does  it  not  seem 
strange  that  it  is  necessary  for  a  science — the  science 
of  ventilation — to  spring  into  existence  in  order  that 
the  mass  of  humanity  may  be  afforded  an  adequate 
supply   of   oxygen  ? 

Ordinary  outside  atmospheric  air  always  contains 
some  carbonic  acid,  but  not  more  than  about  six  parts 
in  ten  thousand,  and  when  the  proportion  becomes 
greater  than  this  the  air  is  unwholesome.  Since  man 
has   decided   to  shut  himself  up  from  the  air  in  houses, 


V  ENTILATK  N — HEATING.  1  '  1 1 

it  becomes  necessary  that  lie  should  devise  some  means 
by  which  the  carbonic  acid  that  his  body  is  continu- 
ally making  shall  be  carried  away,  or  in  a  short  time 
the  atmosphere  of  the  apartment  that  he  occupies  will 
contain  much  more  than  six  parts  in  ten  thousand  of 
carbonic  acid,  and  his  health  will   suffer  thereby. 

In  my  Catechism  of  Hygiene,  I  have  stated  that 
a  human  being  will  consume  three  thousand  cubic  feet 
of  air  per  hour.  This  is  the  ideal  amount,  and  in  pro- 
viding for  health  it  would  be  well  if  each  person  could 
be  assured  of  three  thousand  cubic  feet  of  space.  Of 
course,  it  must  be  understood  that  when  speaking  of 
ventilation  we  are  dealing  entirely  with  'kin-doors," 
for  in  the  street  or  the  country  we  find  all  the  air 
that  is  required.  Let  us  now  suppose  a  room  twenty 
feet  long,  ten  feet  wide,  and  eight  feet  high — 20  X  10 
X  8  =  1,600 — and  we  have  therein  1,600  cubic  feet  of 
space;  since  air  is  everywhere  present,  we  will  have  in 
this  space  1,600  cubic  feet  of  air,  and  since  one  person 
requires  3,000  cubic  feet  per  hour,  it  will  be  seen  that 
a  room  of  the  size  mentioned  will  contain  only  enough 
air  to  supply  one  person  for  a  little  over  half  an 
hour.  This,  of  course,  is  the  maximum  amount 
required;  and  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  it  is  absolutely 
requisite  for  each  individual  to  have  3,000  cubic  feet  of 
space  in  the  room,  or  house,  that  he  occupies.  My 
idea  is  that  the  air  in  a  room  of  the  dimensions  given 
will,  in  the  course  of  a  half  an  hour,  become  suffi- 
ciently deteriorated  by  the  respiration  of  one  person 
to    bring     it     down     below     the    standard    of    purity 


102  HYGIENE. 

required  for  perfect  health.  I  am  assuming,  of  course, 
that  none  of  the  foul  air  is  allowed  to  leave  this  room 
and  no  fresh  or  pure  air  permitted  to  enter;  which 
is,  fortunately,  an  impossibility,  as  we  shall  see  later 
on.  I  am  stating  an  ideal  condition,  that  we  may 
have  a  foundation  from  which  to  start  in  our  discus- 
sion of  ventilation. 

It  is  a  fact  that  the  walls  of  houses  are  porous,  so 
to  speak;  they  are  pervious  to  the  passage  of  air. 
Hence  it  happens  that  even  though  the  doors  and  win- 
dows may  be  closed,  there  is  yet  constantly  taking 
place  an  interchange  of  air  between  that  without  and 
that  within  the  house ;  the  inside  air,  loaded  with  car- 
bonic acid,  is  passing  out,  and  the  outside  air,  loaded 
with  oxygen,  is  passing  in,  through  the  walls.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  more  or  less  air  passes  in  and  out  through 
the  cracks  and  crevices  of  the  doors  and  windows,  so 
that,  fortunately,  it  is  not  possible  for  us  to  shut  out 
all  the  air. 

What  we  have  described  may  be  called  ' '  natural 
ventilation, ' '  and  by  these  means  the  air  will  be  changed 
sufficiently  to  reduce  the  requisite  cubic  space  from 
3,000  to  something  like  400  or  500  cubic  feet  for  each 
individual ;  but,  without  special  ventilation  it  will  not 
be  safe  to  go  below  this  limit. 

Open  doors  and  windows  afford  the  simplest  and 
easiest  method  of  ventilation ;  but  here  comes  in  the 
danger  of  draughts.  With  door  and  window  ventila- 
tion we  can  safely  reduce  the  requisite  amount  of  cubic 
space  to  about  250  feet  for  each  person. 


VENTILATION --'I  HATING. 


103 


Let  us  now  clearly  understand  what  is  meant  by  a 
draught.  An  old  Spanish  proverb  says:  "  If  cold  wind 
reach  you  through  a  hole,  go  make  your  will  and  mind 
your  soul."  You  know  that  "still  waters  run  deep," 
while  shallow  little  streams  usually  rush  tumultuously 
along. 

So  a  small  stream  of  air,  finding  its  way  through 
the  keyhole,  or  a  chink  or  crevice,  will  generally  move 
with  great  velocity ;  and  it  is  a  current  of  cool  or  cold 
air  moving  rapidly  across  a  room,  that  may  be  called  a 
draught. 


r- .... :::  ::;::_;.,l._j  ~:^i^^_i^^::::,^:^i^'\\\^\^;::::v:::.^r~~r7^:>^^^„;i 


Fig.  27.— Draughts. 


For  instance,  an  open  fire  will  draw  from  the  room, 
up  the  chimney,  about  150  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour; 
if  no  provision  be  made  for  the  entrance  of  this  air  into 
the  room,  it  must  be  sucked  in  through  the  crevices  of 
the  doors  and  windows,  but,   particularly,  through   the 


104  HYGIENE. 

keyhole,  as  this  is  the  largest  opening.  The  flame  of 
a  lighted  candle  held  at  the  keyhole,  will  be  blown 
horizontally  by  the  draught  that  is  thus  created,  the 
draught  being  a  rapidly-flowing  current  of  air  from  the 
keyhole  to  the  fireplace. 

Hence,  natural  "ventilation"  is  very  apt  to  be  accom- 
panied by  draughts.     Are  draughts  injurious  ? 

To  a  x^erson  in  robust  health,  a  draught  is  not  inju- 
rious, unless  he  be  overheated  or  very  much  exhausted 
from  violent  exercise ;  while  to  the  very  young  and  the 
very  old,  and  to  those  who  are  not  very  strong,  a 
draught  is   very  dangerous. 

It  is  a  fact  that  a  current  of  cold  air  flowing 
rapidly  against  the  body  of  one  who  is  not  strong  is 
injurious  in  several  ways.  By  cooling  the  surface  of 
the  body  too  rapidly  it  calls  upon  the  heat-generating 
functions  within  to  supply  more  heat,  and  if  they  be 
not  vigorous  they  are  unable  to  reply  to  the  demand, 
thus  allowing  the  temperature  of  the  body  to  fall 
below  that  which  is  requisite  for  healthy  life. 

Again,  this  sudden  cold  applied  to  the  skin  so  con- 
tracts the  orifices  of  the  sweat  glands  _.  that  the 
' '  insensible  perspiration ' '  is  checked,  and  the  effete 
matter  which  this  perspiration  has  been  removing  from 
the  body,  is  conrpelled  to  remain  therein. 

Still  further,  the  capillary  blood-vessels  in  the  skin 
are  contracted  by  this  cold  air;  contracting,  they  force 
some  of  their  contents  of  blood  out  of  them,  and 
this  blood,  compelled  to  go  somewhere,  seeks  lodg- 
ment in   some  part  or  organ  that  is  weak   and  unable 


V  ENTILATION — HEAT]  NG.  1  <  >f) 

to  resist  its  intrusion,  producing  a  congestion  or  an 
inflammation. 

Finally,  the  cold  air  acting  upon  and  disagreeably 
impressing  the  nerve  terminals  in  the  skin,  this  impres- 
sion is  made  manifest,  through  the  agency  of  the 
nerves,  upon  some  remote  organ  or  part  that  may 
happen  to  be  weak.  Thus,  when  a  person  is  said  to 
have  taken  cold,  you  now  understand  that  this  means 
that  a  draught  or  current  of  air  cooler  than  the 
body  has  caused  the  evaporation  from  this  body  of 
more  heat  than  it  can  afford  .to  lose,  that  it  has 
checked  "insensible  perspiration;"  that  it  has  driven 
the  blood  from  the  surface,  and  that  it  has  disagree- 
ably impressed  the  nerves  of  the  skin;  a  much  more 
complicated  process  than  it  would,  at  first  sight,  seem. 
You  can  also  understand  how  one  in  vigorous  health 
can  resist  the  pernicious  influence  of  a  draught.  The 
abstraction  of  heat  can  be  readily  made  up  from  his 
vigorous  heat-producing  apparatus  within,  because  as 
more  heat  is  required,  he  is  able  to  make  more ;  the 
checking  of  the  insensible  perspiration  will  be  less 
disastrous  to  him  because  he  is  able  to  withstand  its 
evil  effects ;  the  contraction  of  the  surface  blood-ves- 
sels cannot  occur  with  him,  because  his  internal  vessels 
being  equally  strong  are  able  to  successfully  resist  the 
intrusion  of  an  undue  amount  of  blood,  which  must, 
therefore,  remain  in  the  surface,  while  his  nerves  can 
throw  off  the  deleterious  impression  that  would  be 
dangerous  to  less  vigorous  nerves. 

Again,   there    is   much  in   custom,   and   he   who   has 


106  HYGIENE. 

accustomed  himself  to  an  unnaturally  and  unnecessarily 
high  artificial  temperature,  will  be  much  more  liable 
to  take  cold  from  exposure  to  a  draught  than  will 
one  who  has  not  been  made  susceptible  and  tender, 
so  to  speak.  This  can  be  readily  exj)lained  and  under- 
stood. The  heat-producing  function  within  the  body, 
you  will  recollect,  is  the  same  as  the  heat-producing 
function  of  a  stove ;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  body,  as 
in  the  stove,  heat  is  produced  by  the  union  of  oxygen 
and  carbon.  Therefore  we  may  say  that  the  body  is 
a  stove  or  furnace  in  which  carbon  (or  coal)  is  con- 
tinually burning  and  producing  heat.  The  human  fur- 
nace works  automatically ;  that  is  to  say,  it  produces 
just  enough  heat  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the 
body  up  to  the  proper  degree.  Like  the  majority  of 
human  beings,  this  furnace  is  not  anxious  to  do  any 
unnecessary  work ;  hence  if  we  are  accustomed  to 
rooms  of  a  very  high  temperature,  by  which  the  heat 
of  the  body  is  artificially  maintained,  this  natural 
furnace  will  lag  in  its  work;  it  will  become  lazy,  as 
it  were,  because  the  work  required  of  it  has  been, 
thereby,  reduced ;  becoming  lazy,  it  is  not  able  to 
quickly  respond  to  any  sudden  demand,  hence  when 
the  draught  of  cold  air  robs  the  body  of  its  heat, 
the  natural  furnace  is  not  able  to  at  once  make  good 
this  deficiency,  as  it  would  have  been  had  it  not 
been  weakened  and  enervated  by  want  of  use. 

The  average  American  hives  himself  up  in  such  a 
torrid  temperature  in  cold  weather  that  the  moment  he 
is    out    of    doors    he    appreciates    cold    to     its     fullest 


VENTILATION  —  HEATING.  107 

intensity,  and  finds  himself  exceedingly  susceptible  to 
the  assaults  of  Boreas.  With  the  Englishman  this  is 
not  true.  The  average  temperature  of  the  English 
house  in  winter  is  not  over  60°.  We  have  found  this 
to  be  true  of  the  hospitals  as  well  as  of  the  private 
houses,  even  in  the  great  "Consumption  Hospital"  at 
Brompton,  where  the  invalids,  many  of  them  pale  and 
emaciated,  were  wandering  about  in  thinnest  white  cot- 
ton garments,  the  temperature  of  the  ward  was  never 
above  58°  or  60° ;  yet  no  one  complained  of  discom- 
fort, neither  was  there  any  evidence  that  any  person 
was  in  the  slightest  degree  inconvenienced  by  the  tem- 
perature, which  to  a  similar  class  of  invalids  in  this 
country  would  be  considered  almost  deadly.  It  is  not 
an  uncommon  practice  for  Americans,  especially  invalids, 
to  keep  their  rooms  in  winter  time  at  a  temperature 
of  78°  to  80°,  and  we  have  not  infrequently  found  the 
thermometer  to  indicate  85°  to  90°  in  the  room  of  an 
invalid  to  whom  we  are  very  sure  a  lower  temperature 
would  be  absolutely  intolerable ;  so  high  a  temperature 
in  the  summer  time  would  be  pronounced  ' '  roasting. ' ' 
The  dryness  of  the  air,  of  course,  renders  a  high  tem- 
perature more  tolerable  in  cold  weather  if  one  chooses 
to  subject  himself  to  it;  but  this  cold  weather  oven- 
baking,  to  which  so  many  Americans  subject  them- 
selves, has  the  effect  of  rendering  them  exceedingly 
susceptible  to  colds,  which  are  contracted  as  the  result 
of  exposure  to  even  slight  changes  of  temperature,  and 
draughts  of  air  by  which  some  part  of  the  body  is  chilled, 
and  to   the    weather  changes,   against    which    even    the 


108  HYGIENE. 

predictions  of  the  weather  clerk  do  not  always  render 
adequate  protection  possible. 

The  Englishman,  accustomed  to  a  lower  temper- 
ature, finds  himself  thereby  to  a  very  considerable 
degree  protected  from  a  large  class  of  petty  ailments 
of  which  many  Americans  constantly  complain,  and 
which  render  the  lives  of  not  a  few  almost  inconceiv- 
ably wretched.  The  proverbial  American  fear  of  draughts 
is  coming  to  be  much  talked  and  laughed  about  by  our 
cousins  across  the  Atlantic.  Just  now  a  ridiculous, 
but,  to  say  the  least,  very  impressive  joke,  in- 
tended to  satirize  this  particular  feature  of  the  Ameri- 
can temperament,  is  going  the  rounds  of  the  American 
papers.  The  story  relates  to  a  certain  Yankee  who 
died,  requesting  on  his  death-bed  that  he  be  cremated. 
Accordingly  soon  after  his  death  his  friends  proceeded 
to  carry  out  his  request.  After  suitable  preparations 
his  body  was  placed  in  the  crematory  and  the  door 
closed.  After  the  fierce,  consuming  flames  had  contin- 
ued their  work  for  an  half  hour  or  more,  one  of  the 
company  ventured  to  open  the  door  to  observe  how  the 
combustion  was  progressing.  According  to  the  account, 
for  the  veracity  of  which  we  cannot  vouch,  however, 
no  sooner  was  the  door  opened  than  the  defunct 
Yankee  sat  up  amid  the  flames,  stark  blue,  and  shiv- 
ering, and  exclaimed,  "Please  shut  that  door.  You 
know   very   well   I   never     could   stand   a   draught." 

Understanding  now  what  a  draught  means,  you 
should  be  able  to  anticipate  the  means  that  must  be 
employed   to   avoid   its   evil   effects. 


VENTILATION — HEATING. 


109 


In  the  first  place,  you  should  endeavor  so  to 
harden  your  body  that  it  will  not  be  susceptible  to 
draughts ;  because,  with  all  your  precautions,  you  will 
find  it  impossible  to  always  avoid  them.  To  do  this, 
you  should  copy  the  English  custom  of  not  allowing 
the  temperature  of  the  house  to  be  above  G0°  Fall.  \ 
and  if,  with  this  degree  of  heat,  you  feel  chilly,  you 
can  rest  assured  that  the  furnace  within  you  is  lag- 
ging in  its  work,  and  the  best  thing  for  you  to  do 
is  to  take  a  good,  long,  brisk  walk  in  the  open  air, 
whereby  the  generation  of  heat  within  will  be  in- 
creased. 

Suppose,  in  a  room  with  an  open  fire,  you  throw 
open   the    window;    the  draught,    or   current   of   air,    in 


Fig.  28. — Window  Ventilation. 


this    room   will    now  be    directly  from    the    open   win- 
dow to  the   fire.     Of   course,    some  little   air  will  come 


110  HYGIENE. 

through  chinks  and  crevices  and  keyhole,  but  not  to 
any  perceptible  extent,  because  all  the  air  that  the 
chimney  requires  can  enter  through  the  open  window. 
Under  such  circumstances,  you  can  easily  determine 
the  direction  of  the  current  of  air,  or  draught,  and 
avoid  it. 

But  will  this  current  of  air  merely  pass  from  the 
window  to  the  fireplace,  and  will  the  rest  of  the  air 
remain  stagnant  ?  By  no  means.  The  stronger  cur- 
rent from  the  window  to  the  fire  will  exert  a  suction 
force  upon  all  the  air  in  the  room,  and  will  suck  it, 
so  to  speak,  into  the  current,  from  every  portion  of 
the  room.  But  these  smaller,  secondary  currents  (indi- 
cated by  the  lighter  arrows  in  the  drawing)  will  not 
have  the  velocity  of  the  parent  current,  they  will  not 
be  perceptible,  and  will  not  constitute  what  we  have 
described  as  draughts.  Ideal  ventilation  is  that  which 
will  bring  in  pure  and  carry  out  foul  air  without 
causing  a  draught,  and  it  is  in  the  effort  to  accomplish 
this  that  so  many  systems  of  ventilation  have  been 
devised,  the  advocates  of  each  claiming  that  theirs  is 
the  best.  In  truth,  no  better  system  of  ventilation  can 
be  had  than  an  open  fireplace,  with  a  fire  burning 
therein,  and  an  open  window ;  it  will  be  easy  to  cal- 
culate the  direction  of  the  greater  current  of  air,  which 
will  be  in  the  shortest  direction  from  the  window  to  the 
fireplace,  and,  having  ascertained  this,  it  will  be  an 
easy  matter  to  avoid   the   draught. 

But,  in  very  cold  weather,  a  grate  fire  will  not 
sufficiently  heat  a  room  with  a  window  opened.     Hence, 


VENTILATION—  HEATING.  Ill 

either  tlie  heat  must  be  increased  or  the  outside  air 
must  be  warmed  before  it  is  discharged  into  the  room. 
To  meet  these  indications,  I  am  satisfied  that  there  is 
nothing  more  efficacious  than  a  properly  constructed 
old-fashioned  hot-air  furnace.  It  may  be,  that  elec- 
tricity, as  its  advocates  claim,  will  solve  the  problem  of 
house-warming  more  satisfactorily  than  any  plan  yet 
devised;  but,  until  this  has  been  demonstrated,  experi- 
ence has  convinced  me  that  we  had  better  adhere  to  the 
hot-air  furnace. 

If  you  have  a  hot-air  furnace  with  a  tube  or  box  so 
arranged  that  the  fresh,  pure  air  from  outside  is  drawn 
through  it  to  the  hot-air  chamber  of  the  furnace,  and 
in  each  room  an  open  fireplace,  with  a  fire  burning 
therein,  you  will  have  the  best  possible  ventilation. 
The  inlet  for  the  hot  air  is  best  placed  near  the  ceiling, 
for,  as  the  air  cools  a  little,  it  becomes  heavier,  and 
will  of  its  own  weight  descend  ;  so  that  not  only 
in  this  way  is  the  circulation  of  the  air  aided,  but 
the  level  of  the  atmosphere  in  which  the  person  moves 
will  not  be  so  overheated  as  to  make  us  tender,  the  air 
cooling  as  it  falls  until  that  which  is  being  used  by  the 
individual  has  been  reduced  to  a  proper  and  healthy 
degree.     (See  Fig.  29.) 

Steam  heating  has  its  advocates,  but  practical  expe- 
rience causes  me  to  deprecate  it.  It  has  an  advantage 
in  not  raising  into  the  house  so  much  dust  as  the  hot- 
air  furnace  does ;  it  also  saves  labor,  as  a  whole  house 
or  large  building  may  be  heated  by  a  single  fire. 

But  steam   heat  is  not  a   healthful  heat.     There  are 


112 


HYGIENE. 


a!  4 


^1. 


ic 


Fig.  29. 
Ideal  Ventilation  and  Heating. 


VENTILATION-   -HEATING.  113 

two  methods  of  heating  by  steam,  the  direct  and  the 
indirect.  In  direct  steam  heating,  the  steam  is  carried 
all  over  the  house  in  pipes  and  in  each  room  a  radiator 
is  placed.  The  indirect  provides  for  a  coil  of  steam 
pipe  in  the  cellar  placed  in  a  box,  or  compartment,  into 
which  the  air  from  without  is  introduced  •  through  a 
large  pipe.  This  air  is  heated  by  contact  with  the  hot 
steam  pipes,  and  it  then  passes  up  through  pipes,  or 
flues,  to  be  delivered  into  the  different  rooms  and  halls 
of  the  house,  just  as  is  the  case  with  the  hot-air  fur- 
nace. 

In  direct  steam  heating,  it  will  be  seen,  there  is  no 
provision  for  the  entrance  of  pure  air;  in  the  indirect 
method  pure  air  is  introduced,  but  in  neither  is  there 
any  provision  for  the  removal  of  the  foul  air,  both  of 
which  are  so  efficiently  provided  for  in  a  properly  con- 
structed hot-air  furnace.  Again,  there  is  another  objec- 
tion to  steam  heating  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view ;  it 
is  a  fact,  that  when  air  is  warmed  it  becomes  thirsty; 
that  is  to  say,  the  higher  you  raise  the  temperature  oi 
air,  the  greater  becomes  its  capacity  for  the  absorption 
of  moisture.  The  air  of  a  room  heated  by  steam  has  a 
great  avidity  for  moisture,  and  the  only  way  in  which 
this  thirst  of  the  air  can  be  satisfied  is  by  abstracting 
moisture  from  the  bodies  of  the  occupants  of  the  room, 
and  in  doing  this  it  unnaturally  dilates  the  orifices  of 
the  sweat  glands,  through  which  this  moisture  must 
pass,  thus  rendering  one  very  susceptible  to  "taking- 
cold,"  from  the  action  of  a  draught.  If  it  be  impor- 
tant that  we  should  have  ventilation  in  every  room  of 


114  HYGIENE. 

the  house,  it  is  much  more  important  that  the  bed- 
room should  be  thoroughly  ventilated,  for  in  this  room 
one  passes  more  time  than  in  any  other  room,  and  he 
seeks  this  apartment  for  purposes  of  rest,  that  his  rest- 
ing body  may  recuperate  from  the  drain  that  is  made 
upon  it  during  his  waking,  working  hours,  and  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  this  recuperation  that  there 
shall  be  a  plentiful  supply  of  oxygen. 

Unless  carefully  looked  out  for,  the  air  of  a  bed- 
room becomes  stagnant  and  confined,  and  confined  air 
that  has  been  breathed  speedily  becomes,  like  stagnant 
water,  full  of  self-multix^lying  poison,  deadly  to  human 
beings. 

If,  after  having  occupied  a  room,  with  doors  and 
windows  closed  and  no  means  of  ventilation,  for  one 
night,  you  go  out  of  doors,  walk  around  the  block  and 
come  back  to  the  room,  you  cannot  help  but  note  the 
foulness  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  apartment  unless 
your  nerves  of  smell  have  completely  lost  their  sensi- 
tiveness. 

This  foulness  is  due  not  only  to  the  carbonic  acid 
and  other  impurities  given  off  in  respiration,  but  also 
to  the  emanations  from  the  skin  given  off  in  the  "in- 
sensible perspiration;"  and  the  foulness  of  an  unventi- 
lated  bedroom  is  really  something  terrible.  The  offen- 
sive effluvium  which  pervades  close  bedrooms  (says  Dr. 
A.  N.  Bell)  and  the  beds  and  clothing  of  those  who 
occupy  them,  is  due  to  the  accumulation  of  such  impu- 
rities as  those  above  described,  exhaled  from  the  lungs 
and  skin.     They  not  only  adhere  to  the  person,  but  to 


VENTILATION — HEATING.  115 

all  the  surroundings.  They  penetrate  and  cleave  to  the 
beds  and  bedclothes  and  wearing  apparel;  stick  to  the 
walls  and  furniture ;  in  short,  they  thus  create  a  nidus, 
which  is  not  only  offensive  to  the  smell,  but  perpetu- 
ally lessening  the  vital  force  and  predisposing  to  blood 
poisoning  all  who  habitually  expose  themselves  to  it;  a 
veritable  hot-bed  for  the  planting  and  propagation  of 
srjecific  diseases,  and  the  most  fruitful  of  all  sources  of 
scrofula  and  coiisumption,  and  other  diseases  often 
falsely  ascribed  to  heredity. 

I  cannot  too  strongly  impress  this  point  upon  you. 
Consumption  kills  more  persons  than  any  other  disease — 
more,  indeed,  than  any  five  or  six  other  diseases  com- 
bined; it  is  the  greatest  foe  to  human  life  and  health; 
it  is  a  disease  that,  when  far  advanced,  cannot  be 
cured;  it  is  a  disease  that  causes  a  long,  suffering 
sickness,  and  it  is  a  disease  that  has  for  its  greatest 
cause  the  breathing  of  impure  air.  Physicians  know 
how  to  prevent  consumption  and  how  to  cure  it  in  its 
early  stages,  but  it  is  not  by  the  use  of  any  particular 
drug,  but  by  the  avoidance  of  foul,  and  the  abundant 
use    of  pure  air. 

Not  less  important  than  ventilation  of  the  bedroom, 
is  ventilation  of  the  bath-room,  particularly  if  there  is 
a  water-closet  in  this  room.  Good  plumbing  aims  to 
prevent  the  return  of  foul  air,  or  sewer-gas,  from  the 
sewer  up  the  pipes,  back  into  the  bath-room,  to  be- 
from  there  disseminated  throughout  the  house.  No 
matter  how  good  the  plumbing  may  be,  it  will  be  well 
to  take  the  additional  precaution  of  securing  good  ven- 


116 


HYGIENE. 


tilation,  so  that  any  foul  air  that  may  return  will  be 
carried  away.  This  can  be  readily  accomplished  by  a 
very  simple   and  inexpensive    device.     (Fig.  30.) 


Fig.  30. 
Bath-room  Ventilation. 

Have  made  a  tin  pipe  with  a  funnel-shaped  open- 
ing at  one  end,  located  a  foot  or  two  above  the  gas 
jet.  Carry  this  pipe  across  the  ceiling  and  out  through 
the  wall  over  the  window,  putting  a  hood  over  the  out- 
side opening  to  prevent  the  rain  from  pouring  down  the 
pipe.  The  gas  will  heat  the  air  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
pipe,  causing  it  to  rise,  and  an  upward  current  will  be 
thus  created.  This  current  of  air  passing  constantly 
through  the  pipe  to  be  delivered  into  the  outside  atmos- 
phere, and  sucking  up,  so  to  speak,  all  the  air   of  the 


VENTILATION — HEATING.  117 

room,  including  any  foul  air  that  may  find  its  way 
back  from  the  sewer  through  the  waste-pipes  of  the 
bath-tub   and   water-closet. 

Of  course,  it  must  be  clearly  understood  that  venti- 
lation is  only  a  requisite  of  cold  weather;  in  the  warm 
weather  of  summer  doors  and  windows  are  always  open 
and  the  pure  air  has  free  access  to  our  rooms.  But, 
even  in  summer,  some  persons  will  close  the  windows 
of  the  bedroom,  because  they  do  not  consider  it  health- 
ful to  breathe  ' '  night  air. ' '  This  is  a  very  great  mis- 
take. Dr.  F.  L.  Oswald  reminds  us  that  since  the  day 
of  creation,  night  air  has  been  breathed  with  impu- 
nity by  millions  of  different  animals,  tender,  delicate 
creatures,  some  of  them  fawns,  lambs  and  young  birds. 
Thousands  of  soldiers,  hunters  and  lumbermen  sleep 
every  night  in  tents  and  open  sheds,  without  the  least 
injurious  consequences.  Men  in  the  last  stages  of 
consumption  have  recovered  by  adopting  a  semi-savage 
mode  of  life,  and  camping  outdoors  in  all  but  the 
stormiest  nights.  In  fact,  night  air  generally  contains 
less  carbonic  acid  than  day  air;  and  we  must  remember 
that  God  made  night  air  as  He  did  day  air,  and  that 
He  made   it  suitable   for   us. 

Growing  plants  exert  a  considerable  influence  upon 
the  purification  of  the  air  of  a  room,  and  we  have 
already  seen  that  green  vegetation  of  every  kind, 
under  the  influence  of  sunlight,  absorbs  carbonic  acid 
and  gives  out  oxygen ;  but  the  flowers  of  plants  and 
fruits,  while  ripening,  absorb  oxygen,  hence  while  bed- 
rooms may  be  rendered  more  healthful   by  the  presence 


118  HYGIENE. 

of  green  flowerless  plants,  it  will  be  better  not  to  have 
those  that  are  in  bloom  or  fruitage. 

It  is  also  claimed  that  while  plants  give  off  oxygen 
during  the  daytime  when  under  the  influence  of  the 
sun,  the  reverse  takes  place  at  night  and  they  give  off 
carbonic  acid;  hence  it  is  probably  best  not  to  have 
growing  plants  in  the  bedroom  at  night. 

Closely  allied  to  pure  air  and  ventilation  is  the 
question  of  Sunshine.  Corn,  potatoes,  hay,  oats  and 
wheat  require  the  sun  that  they  may  attain  a  healthy 
growth,  and  much  more  essential  is  the  influence  of 
the  sun  to  the  growth  and  health  of  man. 

A  house  upon  which  the  sun  does  not  freely  shine 
for  at  least  several  hours  of  the  day,  will  be  a  damp, 
unhealthful  house,  the  occupants  of  which  will  be  con- 
stantly unwell.  Shade  trees  close  to  a  house  should 
not  be  tolerated,  but  thinned  out  so  that  the  sun  may 
have  the  fullest  possible  access  to  the  house. 

In  addition  to  the  ingredients  already  described  as 
being  found  in  the  atmosphere,  we  have  another,  some- 
what illy  defined,  and  not  very  clearly  understood, 
called  Ozone,  which  may  be  considered  as  -oxygen  in 
another  and  more  intensified  form ;  it  is  always  present 
in  the  free  atmosphere  to  some  extent,  but  is  most 
abundant  in  the  air  of  the  ocean  and  of  pine  for- 
ests, and  it  is,  doubtless,  the  presence  of  ozone  that 
gives  to  these  localities  their  superior  reputation  as 
health  resorts. 

It  is  a  fact  that  in  mid-ocean  disease  germs  can- 
not  be  found  in   the   atmosphere,   which,   no  doubt,   is 


V  KX'I  I  LATION — HEATING. 


119 


to  be  accounted  for  by  the  greater  quantities  of  ozone 
in  the  air,  by  which  the  disease  germs,  wafted  from 
the  land,  are  destroyed. 

What  has  already  been  said  about  ventilation, 
implies,  if  acted  upon,  a  certain  expense.  A  hot-air 
furnace  and  an  open  grate  fire  in  every  room  will 
bum  a  great  deal  of  coal,  but  if  one  can  afford  to  pay 
for  this  coal,  it  will  probably  be  cheaper  in  the  eud, 
for  the  amount  of  money  saved  in  doctors'  bills  and 
medicine,  as  a  result  of  good  ventilation,  will  more 
than  off-set  the  cost 
of  the  extra  coal. 

If,  however,  one 
cannot  afford  these 
measures,  then  win- 
dow ventilation  must 
be  relied  upon,  and 
this  method  can  be 
safely  utilized  as  fol- 
lows :  Raise  the  lower 
sash  about  one  foot 
and  insert  a  thin 
board  in  this  open- 
ing ;  the  air  will 
then  enter  in  an  up- 
ward, indirect  cur- 
rent   through    the 

space  that  is  thus  formed  between  the  lower  and  upper 
sash. 

A  simple   and   effectual   arrangement  is   that  of  Dr. 


Fig.  31. — Window  Ventilation. 


120  HYGIENE. 

Keen,  viz.  :  fastening  with  tacks  a  piece  of  paper  or 
cloth  across  the  lower  ten  or  twelve  inches  of  the 
window  frame,  and  then  raising  the  lower  sash  more 
or  less,  according  to  the  weather.  If  desired,  the 
cloth  so  arranged  may  be  suitably  ornamented  on  one 
or  both  sides. 

As  stated  before,  great  numbers  of  patented  devices 
for  ventilation  are  in  existence,  all  based  upon  the 
fundamental  principle  of  the  introduction  of  pure,  and 
removal  of  foul,  air  without  draughts.  Some  of  these 
devices  are  very  good,  the  majority  of  them  are  worth- 
less; but  the  best  is  no  better  than  the  properly  con- 
structed hot-air  furnace  combined  with  the  open  fire- 
place, while  if  this  be  impracticable,  the  raised  window, 
protected  below  as  described,  will  be  the  next  best 
expedient. 

Before  dismissing  the  subject  of  ventilation,  we 
must,,  for  a  moment,  visit  the  cellar.  The  average 
cellar  is  a  hot-bed  of  disease.  Decaying  vegetables, 
dirt  and  rubbish  of  every  description  are  allowed  to 
accumulate  therein.  The  air  of  the  cellar,  warmed  by 
the  heater,  has  a  tendency  to  rise,  and,  contaminated 
by  the  foul  emanations  from  this  decaying  organic  mat- 
ter, it  does  rise  to  be  disseminated  into  every  room  of  the 
house.  Very  often  the  drain  pipes  from  water-closets 
run  under  the  cellar  floor,  and  very  often  these  pipes 
are  broken  or  their  joints  leak,  allowing  their  foul  con- 
tents to  saturate  the  earthen  floor  of  the  cellar.  (Fig.  32). 
The  furnace  heat  sucks  up  from  the  earth  these  foul 
gases  and  distributes   them  throughout   the  house.     To 


VENTII.ATIOX     -HEATING. 


121 


Fig.  32.— Foul  Cellar. 


122  HYGIENE. 

the  average  housekeeper  the  cellar  is  as  much  of  an 
unknown  land  as  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  to  this  fact 
can  be  attributed  many  of  the  mysterious  cases  of  dis- 
ease the  origin  of  which  seem  inexplicable. 

The  cellar  should  be  as  bright  and  clean  and  pure 
as  the  parlor.  Having  said  this,  I  will  venture  the 
assertion  that  it  would  be  even  better  if  we  had  no 
cellar  at  all.  By  this  I  mean  that  if  we  would  exca- 
vate the  ground  only  about  three  or  four  feet,  so  that 
the  greater  portion  of  the  basement  or  cellar  floor 
would  be  above  ground,  we  would  have  an  apartment 
that  could  readily  be  made  as  bright  and  light  and 
clean  and  pure  as  any  room  in  the  house.  No  matter 
how  clean  a  dee])  clown  cellar  may  be  kept,  the  air 
therein  will  not  be  wholesome,  because  the  sun  cannot 
shine  into  such  a  cellar,  and  sunless  air  will  be  always 
unhealthful  air. 

The  cellar  floor  should  be  cemented,  because  there  is 
always  air  in  the  earth,  called  ground  air',  which  is 
not  pure  air,  and,  unless  the  floor  is  cemented,  this  air 
will  be  sucked  up  by  the  heat  of  the  heater  and  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  house. 

The  walls  of  the  cellar  should  be  well  whitewashed 
four  times  a  year,  and  a  quantity  of  unslaked  lime 
should  be  always  kept  in  boxes  in  the  cellar;  this  lime 
will  purify  the  air,  and,  by  absorbing  superfluous  mois- 
ture, will  destroy  the  dampness  of  cellar  air. 


VENTILATION — HEATING.  123 

QUESTIONS    FOR   REVIEW. 

134.  What  is  ventilation  ? 

135.  What  is  the  ordinary  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  in  atmos- 
pheric air? 

136.  How  much  air  will  be  consumed  by  one  person  in  one  hour? 

137.  Is  it  necessary  that  each  person  should  have  this  much  room 
space  ? 

138.  What  do  you  mean  by  natural  ventilation? 

139.  What  do  you  mean  by  a  draught? 

140.  Are  draughts  injurious? 

141.  Explain  the  mechanism  of  the  injurious  effects  of  draughts. 

142.  What  do  you  understand  by  "  taking  cold  "  ? 

143.  How  does  one  in  vigorous  health  resist  the  action  of  draughts? 

144.  What  do  you  say  of  those  who  accustom  themselves  to  high 
temperatures  ? 

145.  What  is  the  average  temperature  of  an  English  house?  of  an 
American  house? 

146.  How  can  we  avoid  the  evil  effect  of  draughts  ? 

147.  What  is  ideal  ventilation? 

148.  What  do  you  say  of  the  old-fashioned  hot-air  furnace? 

149.  Describe  how  a  hot-air  furnace  should  be  arranged. 

150.  What  do  you  say  of  heating  houses  by  steam  ? 

151.  What  do  you  say  of  the  ventilation  of  the  bedroom? 
_.  152.  What  is  the  greatest  cause  of  consumption  ? 

153.  What  do  you  say  of  the  ventilation  of  the  bath-room?  what 
is  the  design  of  good  plumbing  ? 

154.  What  is  your  opinion  of  night  air? 

155.  What  influence  does  vegetation  exert  upon  the  air  of  a  room  ? 

156.  Is  sunshine  essential  for  healthy  life  ? 

157.  What  is  ozone  ? 

158.  What  do  you  mean  by  window  ventilation? 

159.  What  about  the  average  cellar  ?  what  is  ground  air  ?  why 
should  cellar  floors  be  cemented  ?  how  should  the  walls  be  treated  ? 
how  can  the  dampness  of  cellars  be  corrected  ? 


124  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
DIGESTION. 

Digestion  may  be  defined  as  the  function  or  process 
by  which  the  food  that  we  eat  is  converted  into  nour- 
ishment suitable  for  our  bodies.  It  is  a  chemical 
process,  and  a  very  complicated  one.  Digestion  may  be 
said  really  to  commence  in  the  kitchen,  for  proper  cook- 
ing is  a  great  aid  to  healthy  digestion.  But,  since  this 
is  not  a  cook-book,  we  shall  be  satisfied  with  merely 
a  reference  to  the  kitchen  as  a  part  of  the  digestive 
organs. 

Contrary  to  the  popular  idea,  digestion  is  not  con- 
fined to  the  stomach,  but,  commencing  in  the  mouth, 
it  is  continued  throughout  what  is  called  the  alimentary 
canal ;  this  being  the  name  given  to  that  portion  of  the 
body  concerned  in  digestion. 

I  have  said  that  digestion  is  a  chemical  ju'ocess ;  it 
is  a  chemical  solution,  as  all  food  received  into  the  stom- 
ach, be  it  solid  or  fluid,  must  be  converted  into  a 
liquid ;  it  must  be  dissolved,  before  it  can  be  absorbed 
into  the  blood.  Now,  come  into  the  laboratory  of  a 
chemist  and  watch  how  he  makes  a  chemical  solution : 
Here  is  the  solid  that  he  wishes  to  dissolve  and  there 
is  the  liquid  that  is  to  act  as  the  dissolving  agent. 
The  first  step  taken  by  the  chemist  is  to  place  this  solid 


DIGESTION.  125 

in  a  dish  (called  a  mortar)  and  with  an  instrument 
called  a  pestle,  he  thoroughly  pulverizes  this  solid,  reduc- 
ing its  particles  to  the  finest  possible  state  of  sub- 
division. The  dissolving  liquid  is  then  poured  into  this 
finely  broken-up  solid ;  it  is  placed  on  a  stove  or  over 
the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp,  and  as  the  mixture  sim- 
mers, with  a  gentle  heat,  the  chemist's  assistant  con- 
stantly stirs  it.     The  result  is  a  perfect  solution. 

If  the  solid  had  not  been  previously  pulverized ;  if 
it  is  not  kept  warm,  and  if  it  is  not  constantly  stirred, 
the  solution  will  be  an  imperfect  one,  and  the  time  con- 
sumed in  making  it  much  longer ;  because  the  solid  body 
being  an  aggregation  of  minute  solid  particles,  each  of 
which  must  be  dissolved,  the  process  will  be  more  rapid 
and  more  complete  if,  by  the  previous  pulverization, 
each  little  particle  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  dis- 
solving liquid,  while  this  exposure  of  the  particles  will 
be  still  further  facilitated  by  the  constant  stirring. 

A  simple  little  experiment,  easily  performed,  will 
make  the  point  very  clear.  Take  two  lumps  of  sugar 
and  drop  them  into  a  tumbler  of  cold  water.  Pulverize 
two  more  lumps  of  sugar  thoroughly,  put  the  powder 
into  a  tumbler  of  hot  water  and  with  a  spoon  constantly 
stir  it.  Now  see  which  two  lumps  of  sugar  are  dis- 
solved first. 

I  dwell  upon  these  points  because  their  clear  com- 
prehension will  enable  you  to  grasp  the  idea  of  healthy 
digestion  and  the  essentials  necessary  for  it. 

Digestion,  then,  is  a  chemical  solution  of  food,  the 
requisite  conditions  for  which  are  pulverization  of  this 


126 


HYGIENE. 


food,  heat  and  constant   stirring.     Without    these    con- 
ditions digestion  will  be  imperfect. 

What  the  mortar  and 
pestle  are  to  the  chemist, 
the  mouth  and  teeth  are 
to  us ;  the  mouth  is  the 
mortar  and  the  teeth  the 
pestle  with  which  it  is 
intended  that  the  food 
shall  be  thoroughly 
chewed,  or  broken  up, 
that  it  may  be  capable  of 
thorough  and  complete 
solution. 

God  intends  the  teeth 
primarily  for  use,  second- 
arily, if  you  please,  for 
ornament;  and  he  placed 
the  teeth  in  your  mouth 
rather  than  in  your  stom- 
ach, because  it  is  his  de- 
sign that  your  food  shall 
be  chewed  in  your  mouth 
and  not  in  your  stomach. 
So  well  is  this  fact 
understood  by  Mr.  Glad- 
stone,   an  active,  healthy, 

pancreatic  duct ;  DO,  opening  of  the       vicr0r(ms   man    at   84  years, 

common   duct    into    small    intestines.  °  ^ 

that  it  is  related   of   him 
that   he   makes  it  a  prac- 


Fig.  33. 

The  Alimentary  Canal. — M,  mouth  ; 
P,  pharynx ;  OE;  oesophagus ;  S, 
stomach ;  CO,  its  cardiac  opening ; 
PO,  its  pyloric  opening;  ST,  small 
intestine  ;  VA,  vermiform  appendix  ; 
LI,  large  intestine ;  R,  rectum ;  OB, 
gall   bladder;    ED,    bile   duct;    PD, 


Accessory  Digestive  Organs:  L,  liver; 
P,  pancreas  ;  S,  spleen.  From  Walker's 
Physiology.   A.  Lovell  &  Co.,  New  York. 


DIGESTION.  127 

tice  to  chew  every  particle  of  food  that  enters  his 
mouth  twenty  times  before  he  swallows  it  into  his 
stomach. 

The  mouth  is  the  inlet  to  the  digestive  canal,  and 
from  this  inlet  a  tube  extends  down  through  the 
body  for  some  twenty-five  feet,  and  this  tube,  with 
its  appendages,  is  the  digestive  or  alimentary  canal. 
(See  Fig.  33.) 

If  we  follow  a  portion  of  food  in  its  process  of 
digestion  this  function  will  be  best  understood,  and 
our  description  will  describe  eating  and  digestion  as  it 
should  be,  not  as  it  generally  is,  performed.  The 
food  is  taken  into  the  mouth  and  is  at  once  attacked 
by  the  teeth,  by  which  it  is  ground  and  cut  and  bruised. 
You  remember  that  a  muscle  is  composed  of  little 
fibrillaB  inclosed  in  a  covering  (Fig.  35);  the  chewing 
by  the  teeth  breaks  and  tears  this  covering  and  brings 
to  exposure  the  little  fibrillar  of  the  muscle  that  you 
have  eaten  as  beef.  The  structure  proper,  the  nour- 
ishing ingredients  of  Hour,  of  potatoes,  of  corn,  of 
all  vegetable  food,  is  contained   in   a  little  cell  or  sac, 


Fig.  34.  Fig.  35. 


which  is  bruised  and  broken  by  the  teeth,  thus  setting 
free  the  nutritious  ingredients  within.     (Fig.  34). 

The  dissolving  agents  of  digestion  are  certain  fluids 
furnished  by  the  body,  and    these    fluids  find   it  very 


128  HYGIENE. 

difficult  (if  at  all  possible)  to  dissolve  the  covering 
of  the  muscular  fibrillar  or  the  cell -covering'  of  the 
nutritious  ingredients  of  vegetables.  When  these  cov- 
erings are  broken  by  the  teeth,  the  matter  within  is 
exposed  to  and  ready  for  the  juices  or  liquids  of 
digestion. 

The  first  digestive  fluid  that  we  encounter  is  saliva, 
or  spittle,  in  the  mouth.  Saliva  is  furnished  to  the 
mouth  by  six  salivary  glands,  two  beneath  the  tongue, 
one  at  each  extremity  of  the  lower  jaw  below  the 
ear,  and  one  on  either  side  within  the  angles  of  the 
lower  jaw. 

As  if  it  were  but  yesterday,  I  remember  the  first 
line  I  ever  read  in  a  medical  book,  and  I  shall  never 
forget  it  if  I*  live  to  be  as  old  as  Methusaleh.  I  had 
listened  to  a  lecture  by  Prof.  Leidy  on  the  Liver;  all 
that  he  said  was,  of  course,  utterly  unintelligible  to 
me;  in  the  evening  I  looked  up  "Gray's  Anatomy" 
and  turned  to  the  chapter  on  the  liver,  and  this  is  what 
I  read:  "The  liver  is  the  largest  glandular  organ  in 
the  body."  Disgusted,  I  closed  the  book  and  went  to 
bed,  determined  to  abandon  the  study  of  medicine,  for, 
I  thought,  how  can  I  possibly  master  this  art  when  in 
the  very  first  line  I  have  read  I  find  a  word  {glandu- 
lar) of  the  meaning  of  which  I  have  not  the  slightest 
idea. 

I  can  sympathize  with  your  bewilderment  when  you 
are  told  that  saliva  is  furnished  by  the  salivary  glands, 
and  I  hasten  to  try  to  make  clear  to  you  what  a  gland 
is,    because    we   shall   have   occasion   to   frequently    use 


DIGESTION.  129 

this  word.  A  gland  is  an  organ  or  part  of  the  body 
endowed  with  the  power  of  removing  from  the  blood 
certain  ingredients  which,  within  itself,  it  elaborates 
into  a  liquid  capable  of  performing  the  part  assigned 
to  it  in  the  maintenance  of  life.  A.  gland  is  really  a 
little  factory  obtaining  its  raw  material  from  the  blood, 
and  turning  out  the  finished  product,  saliva,  just  as  a 
factory  obtains  raw  wool  from  the  sheep  and  turns  it 
into  beautiful  cloth.  The  saliva  does  not  exist,  as 
saliva,  in  the  blood,  any  more  than  wool  exists,  as 
cloth,  on  the  back  of  the  sheep ;  but  the  ingredients 
out  of  which  saliva  can  be  made  are  circulating  in 
the  blood,  and  the  salivary  glands  possess  the  power 
of  abstracting  these  ingredients  from  the  blood  and 
elaborating  them  into  the  finished  product  which  we 
call  saliva. 

This  property  is  possessed  by  all  glands,  and  it  is 
called  Secretion;  get  this  clearly  fixed  in  your  minds, 
because  there  is  another  function  of  the  body,  some- 
what like  secretion  in  its  working,  but  very  different 
in  its  purpose,  called  Excretion,  which  we  shall  study 
later  on. 

Secretion  is  the  power  possessed  by  certain  parts  of 
the  body  of  abstracting  from  the  blood  those  ingredi- 
ents which,  when  elaborated  or  worked  up,  by  the  part 
secreting  them,  become  capable  of  taking  part  in  the 
maintenance  of  life ;  and  the  presence  of  the  secretions 
in  the  body  is  essential  to  its  healthy  life. 

Excretion  is  the  power  possessed  by  certain  organs, 
or  parts,  of  the  body  of  abstracting  from  the  blood  the 


130  HYGIENE. 

waste  organic  matter  that  has  been  used  up  in  the  pro- 
cess of  life  and  of  removing  it  from  the  body,  where 
its  continued  presence  would  prove  detrimental  to 
healthy  life. 

The  reciprocal  relations  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
body  are  beautifully  demonstrated  in  the  function  of 
secretion.  The  secretion  of  the  salivary  glands,  the 
saliva,  is  an  important  factor  in  the  conversion  of  food 
into  blood,  while  it  is  from  this  same  blood  that  the 
ingredients  out  of  which  saliva  is  made  are  procured. 

To  resume  on  digestion.  The  food  having  been 
bruised  and  macerated  by  the  teeth,  is  attacked  by  the 
saliva  and  the  chemical  solution  commences. 

Much  of  the  food  that  we  eat  is  of  a  starchy  nature, 
such  as  bread  and  potatoes,  and  the  first  step  in  the 
digestion  of  starch  is  its  conversion  into  sugar,  which 
is  begun  by  the  action  of  the  saliva.  Saliva  also  lubricates 
the  food  so  that  it  may  be  more  readily  swallowed. 

Now  do  you  not  see  that  when  Mr.  Gladstone's 
food  is  ready  to  be  swallowed,  it  has  been  thoroughly 
broken  up  so  that  the  juices  of  the  stomach  will  have 
easy  access  to  its  nutritious  ingredients?  The  starchy 
elements  have  commenced  their  conversion  into  sugar, 
and  the  whole  mouthful  of  food  is  so  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  lubricating  saliva  that  it  can  quietly 
and  comfortably  slip  down  the  throat  into  the  stomach. 

From  the  mouth  a  tube  called,  in  its  upper  part, 
the  Pliarynx,  and  in  its  lower  part  the  QZ$op7iagus, 
extends   down   to   the   stomach. 

The    alimentary   canal    might  be   likened  to  a  tube 


DIGESTION. 


131 


about  twenty-live  feet  long,  varying  in  calibre,  and 
having  a  dilatation  in  one  part  of  its  course,  as  is  well 
seen    in   Fig.    3G;    the    dilatation    of    the   tube   is    the 


Large 
intestine  fe=" 


Vermiform 
Appendix        I 

I 
I 

.Small '  /nfpsti 


Fig.  36. 
The  Alimentary  Canal. 

stomach;  the  tube,  it  will  be  seen,  then  narrows  and 
for  many  feet  lies  coiled  up  in  the  abdomen,  and  is 
known    as    the    small   intestine    or   bowel ;  becoming   of 


132 


HYGIENE. 


larger  calibre,  it  ascends,  traverses  and  descends,  and 
this  larger  portion  of  the  tube  is  known  as  the  large 
intestine,  or,  respectively,  the  ascending,  transverse 
and   descending  Colon. 

When  the  food,  that  has  been  prepared  in  the 
mouth,  is  swallowed  into  the  stomach,  its  contact 
with  the  walls  of  this  organ,  by  reflex  action,  as 
I  already  described,  starts  the  stomach  into  motion 
and  the  food  is  churned  or  stirred  about,— a  condition 
that  we  have  seen  is  necessary  to  perfect  chemical 
solution. 

About  fifteen  minutes  after  food  has  been  introduced 
into  the  stomach  the  muscular  contractions  of  this  organ 

become  very  active, 
gradually  becoming 
more  and  more  ener- 
getic until  the  en'd  of 
stomach  digestion, 
which  lasts  about  five 
hours.  Owing  to  these 
contractions  of  the 
stomach,  the  food  there- 
in is  kept  in  constant 
motion  flowing  in  the 
direction  indicated  by 
the  arrows  in  Fig.  37. 
From  one  end  of  the  stomach  it  is  pushed  along 
to  the  other  end,  following  the  direction  of  the 
"greater  curvature,'''1  as  it  is  called;  then  it  returns 
alone  the    "lesser  curvature"  and  in  the   median   line, 


Fig.  37. 
Churning  of  Food  in  the  Stomach. 


DIGESTION.  133 

to  again  pass  along  the  greater  curvature.  At  the  same 
time  a  peculiar  rotary  motion  of  the  stomach  is  going 
on,  similar  to  that  of  rolling  a  ball  between  the  palms 
of  the  hands,  so  that  the  food  is  twisted  in  a  given 
direction  and  the  deeper  lying  portion  is  brought  into 
contact  with   the  walls  of  the  stomach. 

Just  as  the  salivary  glands  secrete  saliva,  so  'the 
glands  in  the  walls  of  the  stomach  secrete  the  gastric 
juice,  the  function  of  which  is  to  perform  that  part  of 
digestion  confided  to  the  stomach,  which  consists 
mainly  in  the  digestion  of  albuminoid  food.  The  chief 
function  of  the  stomach  is  the  digestion  of  meat,  for 
the  gastric  juice  has  very  little  effect  on  vegetable  food 
in  general.  Understanding,  as  you  do,  that  digestion  is 
a  chemical  solution,  and  how  necessary  for  perfect 
solution  it  is  that  every  particle  of  the  solid  to  be  dis- 
solved shall  be  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  dissolving 
liquid,  you  are  prepared  to  appreciate  the  importance 
of  these  movements  of  the  stomach,  and,  knowing  that 
these  movements  are  under  the  control  of  the  nerves, 
it  can  be  seen  at  a  glance  that  derangement  of  the 
nerves  can  interfere  with  the  function  of  digestion. 
But  still  more,  the  very  secretion  of  •  gastric  juice  is 
under  nervous  influence,  so  that  "  rx>or  nerves"  will, 
both  chemically  and  mechanically,  interfere  with  diges- 
tion, by  decreasing  the  amount  or  deteriorating  the 
quality  of  the  gastric  juice,  and  by  interfering 
with  the  proper  contractions  or  movements  of  the 
stomach. 

That  portion  of  the   food  the  digestion  of  which  has 


134 


HYGIENE. 


been  completed  in  the  stomach  is  absorbed  therefrom 
into  the  circulation. 

The  vegetable  part  of  food  (including,  of  course, 
bread)  as  well  as  the  fat  of  animal  food,  is  not  digested 
in  the  stomach.     Where,  then,  does  it  go  ? 

Around  that  end  of  the  stomach  where  it  is  con- 
tinuous with  the  tube  that  we  have  said  is  called  the 
intestine,  you  will  find  circular  muscular  fibres  (Fig.  38) 
which  contract  and  refuse  to  allow  the  contents  of  the 


Fig.  38. 


Fig.  39. 


stomach  to  pass  on  into  this  canal;  just  as  though  you 
were  to  place  a  rubber  band  or  a  string  tightly  around 
a  point  in  the  course  of  a  rubber  tube  (Fig.  39).  We 
have  said  that  heat  was  necessary  for  digestion,  and  we 
find  that  the  temperature  of  the  stomach  is  100°  Fait. 
This  heat  melts  the  fats,  and  the  motions  of  the  stom- 
ach breaks  up  this  oily  fluid  into  smaller  masses.  The 
partially  digested  vegetables,  the  broken-up  fat,  some 
starch  granules  and  particles  of  partially  digested  ani- 
mal food  will  now  be  found  mixed  together  as  a  turbid 
fluid  that  is  called  cliyme. 

About  one  half  hour  after  the  stomach  digestion  has 


DIGESTION. 


135 


Fig.  40. — Chyme  passing  out. 


commenced,  some  of  the  food  has  been  converted  into 
chyme,  and  the  muscular  guard  around  the  opening  from 
the  stomach  into  the  intestines  has  a  standing  order 
to  always  allow 
chyme  to  pass 
through ;  while  it 
refuses  passage  to 
the  food  that  has 
not  been  converted 
into  chyme?  how- 
ever, some  solid 
masses  always  man- 
age to  steal  through  this  orifice  when  it  opens  to  allow 
the  passage  of  the  chyme. 

Passing  from  the  stomach  out  into  the  intestines  or 
bowels,  we  find  a  tube  or  canal,  the  construction  of 
which  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  the  stomach, 
which,  you  will  remember,  is,  anatomically  speaking, 
merely  a  dilatation  of  this  canal.  In  the  walls  of  the 
intestines  we  find  also  (/lauds,  engaged  in  the  secretion 
of  a  digestive  fluid  that  differs,  however,  from  that  fur- 
nished by  the  glands  in  the  walls  of  the  stomach. 
While  we  know  that  the  liquid  secreted  by  these  intes- 
tinal glands  does  play  its  part  in  the  digestion  of 
food,  we  are  not  yet  very  clear  as  to  what  this 
part    is. 

In  the  abdomen  are  two  large  glandular  organs,  the 
liver  and  the  pancreas,  each  of  which  plays  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  function  under  discussion.  The  function 
of  the  liver,  which  is  the  largest  glandular  organ  in  the 


136 


HYGIENE. 


body,  is  so  important  to  healthy  life  that  the  question 
iw  Is  life  worth  living?"  has  been  wittily  answered: 
"That  depends   ivpon  the  Liver." 


Fig.  41. 
Under  Surface  of  the  Liver.  i 

The  liver  has  two  distinct  functions.  1st,  the  secre- 
tion of  bile;  and,  2d,  the  manufacture  of  glycogen,  which 
is  a  kind  of  sugar.  Bile  is  a  bright  yellowish-green 
liquid,  and  when  it  is  secreted  by  the  liver  it  passes 
thence  through  a  duct,  or  tube,  to  be  emptied  into  the 
intestine  just  beyond  the  stomach.  The  pancreas  is  a 
gland  that  secretes  one  of  the  most  generally  useful 
of  all  the  digestive  fluids;  and  the  pancreatic  Jit  ice,  like 
the  bile,  passes  through  a  tube  into  the  intestine.  At 
the  stage  of  digestion  which  we  are  now  considering, 
we  find  the  chyme  in  the  intestine  being  subjected  to 
the  digestive  action  of  a  liquid  that  is  made  up  of 
the    secretions  of  the  intestinal  glands  of  the  liver  and 


DIGESTION.  137 

of  the  pancreas.  You  remember  that  the  conversion  of 
starch  into  sugar  was  begnn  by  the  saliva;  this  change 
is  completed;  and  the  starch  becomes  soluble  sugar  by 
the  action  of  these  juices,  the  most  active  of  which  in 
this  connection  is  the  pancreatic  juice.  You  will  also 
remember  that  fat  was  only  broken  up  in  /the  stomach, 
but  that  it   was  not  digested  therein. 

Now  it  is  digested,  mainly  by  the  pancreatic  juice 
and,    to   a   lesser   extent,    by   the  bile. 

In  addition  to  its  digestive  properties,  the  bile, 
secreted  by  the  liver,  has  several  other  very  important 
duties  to  perform.  It  might  be  called  "Nature's  lax- 
ative;" for,  by  its  stimulating  power,  it  excites  the 
muscles  of  the  intestine  to  increased  action ;  it  also 
moistens  and  lubricates  the  contents  of  the  intestine, 
and  in  this  way  keeps  regular  and  natural  the  evacu- 
ations  from   the  bowels. 

So,  also,  when  the  lining  membrane  of  the  bowel  is 
coated  with  bile  the  absorption  of  the  digested  fats 
takes  place  much  more  readily  than  when  the  bile  is 
absent. 

Remember  that  the  partially  digested  food  which 
passes  from  the  stomach  into  the  intestine  is  called 
chyme,  when  the  digestion  is  completed,  in  the  intes- 
tine, the  resultant  liquid  is  called  chyle,  and  it  is  now 
ready  to  enter  the  circulation ;  but  before  following  it 
there,  wTe  have  some  more  of  the  food  to  dispose  of. 

Not  all  of  that  which  enters  the  mouth  is  capable  of 
digestion,  neither  is  all  that  is  capable  of  digestion 
digested.     The  juices  of  digestion  cannot  dissolve  every- 


138  HYGIENE. 

tiling,  and  even  some  tilings  which  they  can  dissolve 
manage  to  escape  their  action.  These  indigestible  and 
undigested  articles  are  forced  gradually  along  the  intes- 
tines by  the  contraction  of  their  muscular  walls,  their 
bulk  being  increased  as  they  travel  by  the  wTaste  from 
the  body  at  large,  that  is  emptied  into  the  intestine  as 
sewage  is  emptied  into  the  sewer;  and,  finally,  this 
mass  of  waste  is  discharged  from  the  body. 

Food  goes  into  the  mouth,  as  coal  goes  into  the 
stove ;  that  which  is  necessary  for  the  body  is  appro- 
priated, as  that  which  is  essential  to  the  production  of 
heat  is  selected  from  the  coal;  while  the  "residue,"  or 
waste,  is  voided  from  the  body,  as  the  ashes  are  dis- 
charged from  the  stove. 

To  recapitulate,  digestion  commences  in  the  mouth, 
is  continued  in  the  stomach,  and  is  completed  in  ,the 
intestine.  It  has  already  been  stated  that  stomach 
digestion  requires  about  five  hours,  and  it  is  estimated 
that  about  twelve  hours  is  required  for  the  food  to  pass 
through  the  intestine,  so  that  we  can  say  that  from  the 
time  a  given  quantity  of  food  enters  the  mouth  until 
the  undigested  residue  thereof  is  voided  from  the  body 
about  seventeen  hours  will  have  elapsed. 

Now  let  us  go  back  to  the  chyme  and  chyle  and  see 
what  becomes  of  them.  Strange  as  it  may  seem,  until 
you  have  reflected  for  a  moment,  we  are  not  yet  inside 
of  the  body ;  we  are,  in  reality,  as  yet  without  the 
body.  The  throat,  stomach  and  intestines  are,  really, 
prolongations  from  the  mouth,  and  if  you  could  cut  the 
bands   that  bind  them  in  position,   you  could   draw  the 


DIGESTION. 


139 


whole  of  this  twenty-five  foot  long  tube  out  of  the 
month.  It  is  not  easy  to  grasp  this  idea,  but  it  is 
essential  that  you  should,  in  order  that  you  may  under- 
stand what  is  to  follow.  For  a  moment  regard  the  ali- 
mentary canal  as  a  tube  passing  down  the  middle  of 
the  body,  with  an  opening  above  and  an  opening  below ; 
it  is  true  that  this  tube  passes  down  the  inside  of  the 
body,  but  the  inside  of  the  tube  is  not  within  the 
tissue   of  the  body   proper.      Suppose   you   take  a  loaf 

of  bread  and  pass 
through  the  centre  of 
it  a  tin  tube  or  pipe 
(Fig.  42)  ;  this  will 
give  you  a  clear  idea 
of  the  relation  of  the 
alimentary  canal  to 
the  body.  The  tube 
passes  through,  but  the  inside  of  the  tube  is  not  really 
within  the  substance  of  the  bread.  So  the  alimentary 
canal  passes  through,  but  its  interior  is  not  within  the 
structure  of  the  body  proper.  The  importance  of  clearly 
understanding  this  distinction  will  be  apparent  when 
we  remember  that  the  food,  converted  into  chyme  and 
chyle,  ready  to  furnish  nourishment  to  the  body,  is  now 
in  the  intestines,  without  the  body,  waiting  to  gain 
admission  w  itli  in . 


Fig.  42. 


140  HYGIENE. 

QUESTIONS   FOR  REVIEW. 

160.  How  would  you  define  digestion? 

161.  Is  digestion  confined  to  the  stomach  ? 

162.  What  is  the  alimentary  canal  f 

163.  What  is  necessary  for  a  perfect  solution  ;    and  how  do  you 
apply  this  to  the  process  of  digestion  ? 

164.  For  what  does  God  intend  the  teeth? 

165.  What  do  you  say  of  chewing  as  a  part  of  the  digestive  process  ? 

166.  Describe  the  process  of  digestion. 

167.  What  is  a  gland  f 

168.  What  is  secretion  f     Give  an  illustration. 

169.  What  is  excretion?     Give  an  illustration. 

170.  What  is  the  function  of  saliva  in  the  process  of  digestion? 

171.  What  is  the  pharynx?  the  oesophagus? 

172.  Descrihe  stomach  digestion. 

173.  What  influence  have  the  nerves  on  digestion? 

174.  What  kind  of  food  is  mainly  digested  in  the  stomach? 

175.  Where  does  the  digestion  of  vegetable  food  take  place? 

176.  What  is  chyme  f 

177.  What  are  the  intestines,  and  what  takes  place  therein? 

178.  What  are  the  functions  of  the  liver  and  pancreas? 

179.  How  is  fat  digested  ? 

180.  What  is  nature's  laxative? 

181.  What  is  chyle  f 

182.  Is  everything  that  we  eat  digested? 

183.  What  becomes  of  the  indigestible  and  undigested  residue? 

184.  How  much  time  is  required  for  digestion  ? 

185.  Are  the  stomach  and  intestines  really  within,  the  body? 


ABSORPTION.  141 


CHAPTER  X. 
ABSORPTION. 

The  process  by  which  chyme  and  chyle  gain  access 
to  the  circulation  is  called  Absorption,  and  a  beautiful 
function  it   is. 

All  over  the  side  of  the  alimentary  canal  in  appo- 
sition to  the  interior  of  the  body,  that  is  to  say,  the 
side  away  from  the  interior  of  this  canal,  we  find  a 
network  not  only  of  blood-vessels,  but  of  other  little 
tubes  whose  duty  it  is  to  absorb  the  chyme  and  chyle 
from  the  intestines  and  carry  it  into  the  circulation. 
We  have  seen  that  some  absorption  takes  place  directly 
from  the  stomach  and  some  from  the  intestines.  Now 
we  learn  that  some  absorption  takes  place  directly  into 
blood-vessels,  while  the  bulk  of  the  absorption  is  into 
the  other  little  vessels  just  mentioned,  which  are  called 
lacteals.  Through  these  lacteal  tubes  the  chyme  and 
chyle  flow;  these  little  tubes  gradually  coalesce  until 
they  have  formed  one  large  tube,  called  the  thoracic 
duct,  which  carries  its  contents  uj)wards  and  discharges 
it  into  a  very  large  vein  under  the  left  collar  bone, 
at  a  point  just  before  this  vein  discharges  its  blood 
into   the  right  side   of   the   heart. 

If  you  will  recall,  for  a  moment,  your  knowledge  of 
the   circulation   of   the  blood,    it   will   suggest  to    you  a 


142  HYGIENE. 

very  interesting  phenomenon,  and  one  that  will  again 
impress  upon  yon  the  importance  of  an  abundant  supply 
of   oxygen. 

Yon  will  remember  that  venous  blood  is  impure 
blood,  and  that  the  veins  are  conveying  blood  that 
requires  purification  in  the  lungs.  Why  is  not  the 
product  of  digestion  emptied  directly  into  the  arteries 
that  are  carrying  pure  blood  to  nourish  the  body?  Why 
is  the  bulk  of  the  digested  food  emptied  into  a  vein 
from  which  it  must  be  passed  through  the  lungs  before 
it  starts  on  its  journey  of  nutrition  through  the  arteries? 

God  does  nothing  without  design ;  and  when  He 
causes  the  chyme  and  chyle  to  empty  into  a  vein, 
instead  of  an  artery,  is  it  not  because,  although  the 
food  has  already  passed  through  an  elaborate  process  of 
digestion,  it  is  not  yet  tit  to  nourish  the  body  until  it 
has  been  refined,  purified,  oxygenated,  by  its  passage 
through  the   lungs? 

If  such  be  the  case  (and  it  is  most  plausible),  we 
can  thereby  explain  the  poor  nutrition  of  those  who  live 
in  ill-ventilated  rooms  and  houses.  We  sometimes  see 
persons  who  have  good  appetites,  who  eat  well  and  whose 
digestion  is  seemingly  good,  yet  of  whom  we  say  that 
' '  their  food  does  not  seem  to  nourish  them ;  ' '  they  eat 
plenty,  yet  are  thin  and  weak,  when  we  look  for  them 
to  be  stout  and  vigorous.  May  it  not  be  that  because 
this  food,  when  it  reaches  the  lungs,  to  be  there  puri- 
fied and  finally  prepared  for  its  mission  of  nutrition, 
not  finding  enough  oxygen  there,  starts  on  its  journey 
imperfectly   prepared  to  nourish   the   body. 


ABSORPTION.  143 

The  lacteals,  that  we  have  described  as  conveying 
the  digested  food,  are  but  a -part  of  a  general  system 
of  absorbent  vessels  scattered  all  over  the  body.  As 
we  find  nerves  and  blood-vessels  everywhere,  so  do  we 
also  rind  everywhere  minute  little  tubes  called  lymphat- 
ics; these  little  tubes  converging  together  and  being 
joined  by  the  lacteals  (which  are  really  also  lymphatic 
vessels)  finally  form  the  thoracic  duct,  already  de- 
scribed, and  empty  into  the  vein. 

You  already  understand  the  function  of  the  lac- 
teals as  the  conveyance  of  digested  food  into  the  circu- 
lation. The  fluid  that  circulates  in  the  lymphatics  is 
called  lymph;  it  closely  resembles  the  blood  in  compo- 
sition and  contains  little  bodies,  very  like  the  blood 
corpuscles,  which  are  called  lymph  corpuscles.  The 
lymph  consists  of  matter  which,  while  it  has  played  a 
part  in  the  functions  of  life,  has  not  been  entirely 
used  up  therein,  but  is  capable,  after  repair,  of  still 
proving  serviceable  to  the  body.  In  the  course  of 
these  lymphatic  vessels  are  numerous  little  bodies 
called  lymphatic  glands,  and  these  glands  are  really 
repair  shops  wherein  the  lymph  is  renovated  or  re- 
paired, so  that  it  may  once  more  take  its  place  as 
blood.  But  remember  that  this  lymph  empties  into  a 
vein  and  passes  through  the  lungs  to  meet  with 
oxygen  before  it  can  again  serve  as  nourishment  to  the 
body. 

Do  you  not  here  see  how  conservative  are  the  func- 
tions of  the  healthy  human  body  ?  Nothing  goes  to 
waste ;    nourishment  is  repaired  and  renovated,  as   your 


144  HYGIENE. 

good,  careful,  thoughtful  mother  darns  and  mends  and 
patches  your  clothing;  everything  is  utilized  to  its 
full  extent,  and  it  is  only  when  matter  has  been 
entirely  nsed  up  and  is  no  longer  of  any  use  whatever 
to  the  body  that  it  is  voided  therefrom. 

Remember   this   fact,    as   it   will    be   dwelt   on   when 
we  come  to  discuss  the  function  of  Excretion. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

186.  What  is  absorption  ? 

187.  What  are  lacteahf 

188.  What  is  the  thoracic  duct  f 

189.  Where  does  the  chyle  empty  into  the  blood  current? 

190.  Why  does  the  chyle  empty  into  a  vein  instead  of  into  an 
artery  ? 

191.  How  do  you  explain  the  poor  nutrition  of  those  who  live  in 
badly  ventilated  rooms? 

192.  What  are  lymaphtics,  and  what  is  their  function  ? 

193.  What  is  lymph  ? 

194.  What  are  lymphatic  glands,  and  what  is  their  function  ? 


INDIGESTION.  145 


CHAPTER  XL 
INDIGESTION. 

Understanding,  as  we  now  do,  the  function  of 
digestion,  it  will  be  most  appropriate  to  take  up  the 
subject  of  indigestion^  or  dyspepsia,  as  this  condition 
really  means  the  imperfect  performance  of  the  function 
of  digestion.  Of  course,  you  have  now  clearly  fixed  in 
your  minds  the  fact  that  all  parts  of  the  body  are  inter- 
dependent, that  the  integrity  of  one  part  depends  upon 
the  integrity  of  all  others,  yet  you  must  also  realize 
that  even  though  -all  the  parts  may  be,  anatomically 
and  physiologically,  perfect,  still  they  cannot  do  their 
work  unless  they  are  supplied  with  motor  power. 
Every  act  of  life  is  accompanied  by  more  or  less 
motion  of  the  part  performing  it,  and  this  power  of 
motion  is  derived  from  the  food  that  we  eat.  But 
food,  as  it  enters  the  mouth,  is  not  in  condition  to 
give  this  power  to  the  body ;  that  is  to  say,  we  cannot 
take  a  piece  of  beef  or  a  piece  of  bread,  introduce 
it  directly  into  the  blood  and  expect  it  to  nourish 
the  body.  All  food  must  be  prepared,  by  the  process 
that  we  have  studied  as  digest  ion,  before  it  is  capa- 
ble of  furnishing-  nourishment  or  motor  power  to  the 
body. 

As   long    as   there   is   life    there   must   be   digestion, 


146  HYGIENE. 

so  that  when  we  speak  of  indigestion  we  do  not 
mean  that  the  function  of  digestion  has  been  entirely 
suspended,  but  that  it  is  not  being  perfectly  per- 
formed. Perfect  digestion  means  perfect  health ;  imper- 
fect digestion  necessarily  implies  imperfect  health ;  yet 
many  persons  who  were  victims  of  chronic  indigestion 
have  lived  to  very  old  age.  Carlyle,  who  lived  to 
great  age,  was  a  sufferer  from  indigestion  for  very 
many  years,  yet  he  lived  on,  though  he  was  a  very 
crabbed,  cross  old  man,  and  this  irritability  of  his 
temper  was  due  to  his  imperfe'ct  digestion. 

While  I  would  have  you  clearly  understand  that 
no  one  part  or  function  of  the  body  can  be  considered 
as  more  or  less  important  or  necessary  than  any  other 
part  or  function — since  God  clearly  knew  what  he 
was  doing  when  he  made  man,  and  did  not  encum- 
ber him  with  any  unnecessary  or  useless  parts — while 
each  and  every  part  is,  in  its  own  sphere,  absolutely 
essential  to  healthy  life;  yet  I  am  tempted  to  say 
that  if  I  were  compelled  to  name  a  function  that 
might  be  regarded  as  the  most  important  function  of 
the  human  body,  I  would  say  digestion,  because  by 
preparing  the  nourishment  for  all  the  parts  it  is  the 
function  without  which  no  part  could  act. 

Perfect  digestion  is  an  absolutely  unconscious  act; 
it  is  in  no  way  under  the  control  of  the  will,  and 
the  person  whose  digestion  is  perfect  will  be  abso- 
lutely unconscious  of  the  performance  of  this  function. 
The  possessor  of  a  perfectly  healthy  stomach  will  not 
be    aware    of    the    fact    that    he    has    a    stomach.     In 


INDIGESTION.  147 

fact,  this  may  be  said  of  all  the  functions,  for  a  per- 
fectly healthy  person  will  not  be  conscious  of  the 
performance  of  any  of  the  functions  by  which  his 
life  is  maintained,  except  that  he  is  conscious  of  the 
general  result  of  the  integrity  of  all  of  them,  by  the 
health  and  pleasure  which  this  confers  upon  him. 

Whenever  a  person  is  made  conscious  of  the  exist- 
ence of  any  organ  by  impressions  that  may  be  referred 
to  it,  he  may  understand  that  the  function  of  this 
organ  is  not  perfect,  although  the  imperfection  may 
not  be  so  serious  as  to  amount  really  to  disease  of 
this  particular  part. 

So  then  indigestion,  or  dyspepsia,  means  an  imper- 
fect performance  of  the  function  of  digestion.  This 
imperfection  may  be  of  two  kinds.  It  may  be  that 
the  parts  concerned  are  so  much  disordered  that  they 
cannot  properly  do  their  work,  and  when  digestion  is 
completed  the  resulting  chyme  and  chyle  are  of  inferior 
quality ;  or  it  may  be  that  these  parts  are  capable  of 
making  good  chyme  and  chyle,  but  that  they  can  only 
do  so  as  the  result  of  an  amount  of  labor  on  their 
part  greatly  in  excess  of  the  amount  that  would  have 
been  necessary  had  they  been  in  good  condition. 

Let  us  start  three  boys  to  do  a  sum  in  addition ;  let 
one  boy  be  quick  and  accurate  at  figures ;  the  second 
accurate,  but  slow,  requiring  time  and  labor  to  do  his 
sums ;  the  third  boy,  like  Dean  Stanley  and  Mr.  Glad- 
stone when  boys,  utterly  unable  to  understand  the 
simplest  problems  in  arithmetic.  The  first  boy  will 
promptly  hand    in    his    addition,    correctly    performed, 


148  HYGIENE. 

without  any  effort  on  his  part ;  after  a  while  the  sec- 
ond boy  comes  along  with  his  sum;  it  is  correct,  but 
the  worried  expressipn  on  his  face  plainly  tells  that  it 
has  caused  him  great  effort  to  make  it  so;  but  the 
third  boy,  struggle  as  he  may,  cannot  get  his  addition 
correct. 

So  we  have  the  three  types  of  digestion :  1 .  Perfect 
digestion ;  2.  Labored  or  difficult  digestion ;  3.  Incom- 
plete or  faulty  digestion.  Labored  and  incomplete 
digestion  must  be  regarded  as  indigestion. 

But  now,  just  as  the  body  requires  good  digestion 
that  it  may  be  healthy,  so  does  the  function  of  diges- 
tion require  a  healthy  body  that  this  function  may  be 
properly  performed.  Good  digestion  makes  good  blood, 
and  good  blood,  in  turn,  will  furnish  good  digestive 
juices  for  the  performance  of  this  function ;  for  you 
remember  that  all  the  juices  concerned  in  the  function 
of  digestion  are  secreted  from  the  blood. 

While,  as  has  been  said,  the  function  of  digestion  is 
an  involuntary  process,  one  over  which  the  will  has  no 
control,  yet  the  will  has  control  over  the  accessory  or 
collateral  conditions  that  will  help  to  make  perfect  or 
imperfect  this  function.  Thus,  we  have  seen  the  impor- 
tance of  breaking  up  the  food  by  chewing,  and  over 
this  duty  the  will  has  entire  control,  as  it  has  over 
many  other  of  the  incidentals  to  good  digestion. 

The  voluntary  aids  to  good  digestion  may  be  best 
summarized  by  formulating  rules  for  heaffliful  eating, 
in  which  they  will  all  be  brought  out;  but  in  giving 
these  rules,  as  in  everything  else,  I  wish  to  be  distinctly 


INDIGESTION.  149 

and  clearly  understood  as  a  sanitarian  who  does  not 
believe  in  making-  an  observance  of  the  teachings  of 
hygiene  irksome,  but  rather  one  who  holds  that  he 
who  uses  ' '  common  sense ' '  and  lives  in  accord  with 
nature,  is  the  very  best  of  sanitarians. 

Rules  for  Healthful  Eating  that  Will  Favor  Perfect 
Digestion. 

1.  Eat  everything,  except  such  articles  as  your  own 
individual  experience  teaches  you  disagree  with  you, 
because  the  body  of  man  requires  a  variety  of  nourish- 
ment, and  could  not  exist  if  confined  to  one  or  two  arti- 
cles. Br.  Huf eland  says:  "In  general,  we  find  that 
those  men  who  were  not  too  nice  or  particular  in  regard 
to  their  food,  but  who  lived  sparingly,  attained  to  the 
greatest  age. 

2.  Eat  slowly  and  chew  all  of  your  food  thor- 
oughly, until  it  becomes  pulpy  and  mushy,  and  well 
mixed  with  saliva,  before  allowing  it  to  pass  into  the 
stomach  ;  because  this  is  an  absolutely  necessary  prelimi- 
nary to  perfect  digestion.  To  do  this  effectually  you 
must  take  only  a  small  quantity  into  your  mouth  at  a 
time,  and  put  no  more  in  until  the  first  instalment  has 
been  thoroughly  chewed  and  comfortably  lodged  in  your 
stomach. 

3.  Cease  eating  before  your  sense  of  hunger  has 
been  thoroughly  satisfied ;  because,  though  the  sensation 
of  hunger  is,  in  the  first  place,  the  voice  of  the  body 
demanding  food,  it  does  not  follow  that  the  stomach 
has  not  received  enough   material   for   the  nourishment 


•150  HYGIENE. 

of  the  body  until  this  voice  of  hunger  is  hushed,  for 
you  must  remember  that  the  food  must  first  be  digested 
before  it  can  nourish  your  body,  and  that  this  process 
will  require  some  little  time.  Therefore,  you  may  have 
enough  material  in  your  stomach  and  still  feel  hungry, 
for,  not  being  yet  digested  and  taken  up,  it  has  not 
satisfied   the  wants   of   the   body. 

In  view  of  these  facts,  a  good  plan  will  be  always 
to  rise  from  the  table  with  a  comfortable  feeling  of 
satiety,  but,  at  the  same  time,  feeling  fully  capable  of 
eating   and   enjoying   "more  than  you   have   taken. 

By  eating  slowly,  you  can  easily  determine  when 
you   have   reached    this   point. 

4.  Avoid  stuffing.  Nothing  can  be  more  conducive 
to  indigestion  or  dyspepsia  than  the  habit  so  common 
among  our  people  of  sitting  down  to  eat  and  making 
a   business   of   it. 

With  hardly  any  interval  between  the  mouthfuls, 
they  cram,  and  push,  and  force,  and  gulp  and  wash 
down  with  huge  draughts  of  water  or  wine,  large 
boluses  of  unchewed  food,  and  never  cease  until  they 
are  physically  unable  to  hold  any  more.  Is  it  any 
wonder  that  they  are  obliged  to  loosen  their  clothing 
to  make  room  for  their  abnormally  and  enormously  dis- 
tended stomachs  ?  They  grunt  and  groan,  are  short  of 
breath,  say  they  have  eaten  too  much,  and  in  a  few 
hours'  time  stuff  themselves  again.  Is  it  any  wonder 
that  dyspepsia  is  so  common  among  a  people  so  liog- 
gisli  f  Could  it  possibly  be  otherwise?  Even  a  horse 
knows  when   he  has  had    enough,    and   no   amount    of 


INDIGESTION.  151 

persuasion  can  induce  him  to  eat  another  grain  of  oats. 
Let  me,  therefore,  beg  of  you  to  have  as  much  sense 
as  a  horse,  and  to  learn  when  you  have  eaten  enough 
and  to  stop   there. 

5.  Do  not  commence  a  meal  when  overheated;  over- 
fatigued;  very  much  excited  with  anger  or  any  other 
emotion,  or  very  much  depressed;  because  the  digestive 
function,  being  unfavorably  impressed  by  and  partici- 
pating in  all  of  these  conditions,  will  be  unable  to 
properly   perform   its   duty. 

An  anecdote  that  is  related  of  a  very  eminent  phy- 
sician will  well  illustrate  the  importance  of  taking 
plenty  of  time  for  meals.  This  physician  had  made  it 
a  rule  of  his  life  to  allow  one  full  hour  for  dinner, 
and  under  no  consideration,  no  matter  how  pressing, 
would  he  deviate  from  this  rule.  One  day,  shortly 
after  he  had  commenced  dinner,  a  very  wealthy  and 
influential  banker  came  to  his  office  to  consult  him. 
He  was  told  that  the  doctor  was  at  dinner.  Time 
being  valuable  to  him,  he  sent  in  his  card,  consider- 
ing himself  of  sufficient  importance  to  interrupt  this 
meal.  Word  was  returned  that  the  Doctor  was  at 
dinner  and  would  be  out  shortly.  The  banker  waited 
fifteen  minutes,  and  becoming  impatient,  sent  in  a 
second  time.  The  same  word  was  returned.  After 
nearly  half  an  hour  had  elapsed,  word  was  sent  in  a 
third  time.  The  Doctor  then  said,  "Tell  Mr.  So  and 
So  that  I  am  at  dinner,  and  will  come  out  when  I  am 
through  and  not  before,  and  if  that  does  not  suit 
him  he  can  go  to  J<jri<-ln>."'     This  final  message,  though 


152  HYGIENE. 

not  very  elegant,  was  forcible,  and  demonstrated  how 
important  to  this  great  physician  it  was  to  have 
plenty  of  time  for  an  uninterrupted  dinner. 

6.  Above  all  things,  be  regular  in  your  habits  of 
eating.  Always  have  your  meals  at  the  same  hours. 
Take  plenty  of  time  for  them  and  occupy  your  mind, 
while  eating,  with  light  and  pleasant  conversation. 
Heavy  reading,  or  any  mental  occupation  requiring  much 
brain  work,  if  indulged  in  while  eating,  will  be  very 
injurious,  because  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  divert 
blood  from  the  stomach  to  the  brain,  and  for  proper 
digestion  to  take  place,  it  is  necessary  for  the  stomach 
to  have  plenty  of  blood. 

7.  In  warm  weather  avoid,  or  use  sparingly,  oily 
and  fatty  articles  of  food,  because  they  are  both 
unnecessary  and  positively  injurious.  Unnecessary, 
because  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  such  food  is 
the  production  of  heat,  and  the  outside  temperature 
being  high,  you  need  but  a  small  production  of 
internal  heat ;  injurious,  because  their  particles  not 
being  consumed  in  the  production  of  heat,  it  becomes 
the  duty  of  the  liver  to  remove  the  excess  of  them 
from  the  body ;  hence,  if  you  use  such  food  freely 
in  warm  weather  you  give  the  liver  too  much  work 
to  do,  and  it  becomes  exhausted  and  eventually  dis- 
eased. To  carry  out  this  rule  in  an  easy  way  I 
would  suggest  that  you  reduce,  or  entirely  abandon, 
the  use  of  butter  and  gravy  in  summer. 

8.  Avoid  severe  exercise,  either  mental  or  physical, 
for  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour  after  you  have  fin- 


INDIGESTION.  153 

ished  a  meal ;  because  any  exercise  will  tend  to  draw 
the  blood  away  from  the  stomach  toward  the  organ  or 
parts  so  exercised,  and  thus  interfere  with  digestion. 
9.  In  such  a  climate  as  ours  (particularly  in  win- 
ter) three  meals  daily  should  be  the  rule.  Breakfast 
as  soon  as  dressed,  in  the  morning,  should  be  a  sub- 
stantial meal,  because  it  follows  a  long  period  of 
fasting;  dinner,  the  meal  of  the  day,  should  be  eaten 
sometime  between  noon  and  two  o'clock;  a  light  sup- 
per in  the  evening.  Many  persons  object  to  a  mid- 
day dinner,  because  they  claim  that  it  makes  them 
drowsy  and  unfit  for  work.  If  it  does,  it  is  because 
they  are  eating  too  much;  they  are  gorging  them- 
selves. Eat  less,  and  you  will  be  equal  to  do  a  good 
afternoon's  work.  Let  us  divide  the  day,  and  arrange 
the  meal-hours  in  the  manner  that  would  be  the 
most  healthful  for  the  average  man.  Suppose  he 
takes  his  breakfast  at  half-past  six,  his  dinner  at 
half -past  twelve,  and  his  supper  at  half-past  six; 
suppose  he  rises  at  six  and  retires  to  bed  at  ten 
o'clock.  His  period  of  active,  waking,  working  life 
would  then  be  sixteen  hours.  Six  hours  would  elapse 
between  breakfast  and  dinner,  and  six  hours  between 
dinner  and  supper.  Between  supper  and  bedtime 
would  elapse  three  hours  and  a  half,  and  between 
rising  and  breakfast  one  half  hour,  making  four  hours 
in  all.  When  asleep  all  of  the  bodily  functions  are 
much  diminished  in  activity,  merely  working  enough 
to  sustain  life;  the  voluntary  functions  are  com- 
pletely   at    rest,   while    the    involuntary  phenomena    of 


154  HYGIENE. 

life  -are  working  at  very  low  pressure.  So  that  the 
sum  total  of  the  destruction  of  tissue  (requiring  food 
for  its  repair)  which  occurs  during  the  eight  hours 
of  sleep  would  not  probably  exceed  that  which  would 
occur  in  two  hours  of  waking,  active  life,  when  all 
of  the  functions,  intellectual  and  physical,  are  in 
full  activity;  so  that  from  supper,  at  half -past  six 
until  breakfast  at  half -past  six,  there  would  elapse 
a  period  during  which  there  would  take  place  a 
destruction  of  tissue  equaling  in  amount  that  which 
would  occur  in  each  of  the  other  intervals  between 
meals.  Hence,  you  see,  we  would  have  in  the  above 
regimen  an  accurate  division  of  the  twenty-four  hours 
into  fasting,  or  inter-meal,  periods  of  six  hours 
duration. 

10.  A  golden  rule:  Never  eat  between  meals; 
because  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  your  stomach 
to  have  periods  of  rest  and  repose,  and  if  you  are 
continually  eating  you  are  also  continually  giving  your 
stomach  work  to  do,  and  robbing  it  of  its  needed 
rest. 

11.  Do  not,  as  a  rule,  eat  just  before  going  to  bed. 
Your  stomach  is  a  patient  slave  and  a  faithful  servant. 
Tf  you  impose  a  task  upon  it,  it  will  use  every  pos- 
sible effort  to  perform  the  duty.  When  night  comes 
your  stomach  is  tired  out  and  exhausted  from  its  long 
day's  work,  and  it  wants  to  go  to  sleep.  If  you  put 
food  into  it  and  order  the  process  of  digestion  to  com- 
mence, your  patient  stomach  makes  an  effort  to  obey ; 
but    it   is    so    exhausted    that    it   is    utterly    unable    to' 


INDIGESTION.  155 

properly  do  its  work,  and  dyspepsia  ensues.  Still 
more,  its  faithful  friend  and  ally,  the  brain,  resents 
your  cruel  injustice  to  its  comrade,  and  as  a  punish- 
ment for  your  indiscretion  tortures  you  with  night- 
mare, as  though  to  say,  if  you  are  foolish  enough  to 
rob  your  stomach  of  its  needed  rest,  I  will  play  the 
same  game  with  you.  I  will  disturb  and  make  uncom- 
fortable with,  hideous  dreams  your  sleep,  and  see  how 
you  like  it.  Seriously,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  night- 
mare is  nature's  protest  against  an  overloaded  and 
abused  stomach,  and  its  warning  should  be  heeded. 
There  are  some  cases  in  which  a  glass  of  milk  or 
some  light  nourishment  just  before  retiring  will  be 
conducive  to  sleep,  but  for  the  great  majority  of 
healthy  persons  the  rule  given  above  will  hold 
good. 

12.  As  a  rule  it  will  be  better,  other  things  being 
equal,  not  to  eat  when  you  are  not  hungry.  Aj>]><  tile 
is  the  voice  of  the  body  demanding  nourishment,  ask- 
ing repair  for  its  waste.  If  you  are  in  health  and 
this  demand  does  not  exist,  it  will  be  because  your 
body  does  not  require  nourishment ;  it  has  enough  for 
the  time  being;  therefore,  eating  under  these  circum- 
stances would  be  gorging,  and  would  be  unwholesome. 
If  you  live  a  regular  life,  as  you  should,  perform- 
ing the  same  amount  of  work  each  day,  and  sitting- 
down  to  your  meals  at  the  same  hours,  appetite  will 
generally  be  present. 

To  eat  well  is  to  nourish,  to  nourish  is  to  make 
good   blood,    and   good    blood    makes    good   cheer,    and 


156  HYGIENE. 

good   cheer   good    friends,  and   good   friends  make  hap- 
piness. 

Therefore,  to  eat  well  makes  happiness. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

195.  What  do  you  mean  by  indigestion? 

196.  Why  is  digestion  such  an  important  function? 

197.  What  do  you  say  of  the  unconsciousness  of  perfect  digestion? 

198.  How  do  you  divide  indigestion  ?     Give  an  illustration. 

199.  What  are  the  three  types  of  indigestion  ? 

200.  Why  is  general  good  health  essential  to  good  digestion  ? 

201.  Has  the  will  power  any  control  over  the  accessories  to  good 
digestion  ? 

202.  What  are  the  rules  for  healthful  eating? 


FOOD — COOKING.  157 


3.5 

oz. 

3.1 

<( 

10.7 

u 

1.0 

a 

18.3 

OZ. 

3  pints 

CHAPTER  XII. 

FOOD— COOKING. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  majority  of  persons 
eat  too  much ;  they  eat  more  than  the  body  requires. 
An  adult  man  should  be  well  nourished  if  he  be  sup- 
plied with  the  following  daily  diet : 

Albuminous  foods,     . 

Fats,      ...... 

Starch,       ..... 

Salts, 

Total  solids, 
Water, 

If  you  choose  to  take  the  trouble  to  weigh  the  food 
that  you  eat  in  one  day,  you  will  find  that  it  greatly 
exceeds  eighteen  ounces;  though  nearly  all  that  is  con- 
sumed greatly  in  excess  of  this  amount  is  not  required ; 
it  is  not  assimilated  and  is  removed  from  the  body  as 
waste. 

Let  us  now,  for  a  moment,  learn  something  about 
the  food  that  we  eat,  which  we  divide  as  follows: 

i. — ORGANIC 

1.  Nitrogenous: 

(a.)  Albuminous — as  represented  by  eggs.  milk,  meat, 
peas,  wheaten  flour,  etc. 

(b.)  Albuminoid— as  represented  by  soups,  jellies,  etc. 


158  HYGIENE. 

2.  Non-Nitrogenous  : 

(a.)  Carbohydrates  (sugar-starch)  abundant  in  all 
kinds  of  vegetable  food ;  in  the  cream  of  milk,  and 
present  in  small  quantity  in  meat,  fish,  etc. 

(b.)  Fats — in  the  cream  of  milk,  butter,  cheese,  fat 
tissues  of  meat,  some  vegetables,  oils,  etc. 

II. INORGANIC. 

1.  Salts — mixed  with  all  kinds  of  food. 

2.  Water — mixed  with  the  foregoing  or  alone. 

To  make  this  division  a  little  plainer  I  will  explain 
that  the  class  of  foods  called  nitrogenous  are  so  called 
because  they  are  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  that  nitrogenous 
foods  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  construction  of  flesh  or 
muscle.  The  roast  of  beef  or  the  beefsteak  are  good 
illustrations  of  the  class  of  food  called  nitrogenous. 
The  white  of  egg  is  nearly  pure  albumen,  and  food  that 
is  rich  in  albumen  is  called  albuminous,  and  albumin- 
ous foods  are  nitrogenous  because  albumen  is  rich  in 
nitrogen.  This  idea  will  not  be  hard  to  get  fixed  in 
your  mind  if  you  read  it  over  a  few  times  carefully, 
and  if  you  once  get  this  division  of  foods  clearly  fixed 
in  your  mind,  it  will  make  the  question  of  nutrition 
very  easy  of  comprehension.  Albuminoid  material  is 
to  albumen  what  the  tangerine  is  to  the  orange;  it  is 
not  exactly  albumen,  but  it  is  very  much  like  it.  Like 
albumen,  it  is  very  rich  in  nitrogen,  hence  it  also 
belongs  to  the  nitrogenous  class.  Now  the  non-nitro- 
genous foods  are,  of  course,  as  the  very  words  imply, 
not  rich  in  nitrogen,   but  they  are  rich   in   carbon  and 


FOOD — COOKING.  159 

water.  Fats  are  very  rich  in  carbon  ;  carbon,  you  will 
remember,  is  like  coal,  in  that  it  has  the  property  of 
uniting  with  oxygen  and  producing  heat.  Hence  the 
non-nitrogenous  or  carbonaceous  or  carbohydrates  are 
foods  that  produce  heat  and  fat.  The  production  of 
flesh,  fat  and  heat  are  the  three  purposes  for  which 
food  is  consumed,  and  you  now  understand  which  class 
of  food  is  best  calculated  to  produce  each  particular 
result.  Of  the  inorganic  foods,  salt  and  water  are 
found  in  everything  that  we  eat,  the  salt  most  com- 
monly being  found  as  the  chloride  of  sodium,  which  is 
the  same  salt  that  we  have  on  the  table.  But  other 
mineral  salts  necessary  for  the  body  are  also  found, 
while  the  water  exists  simply  as  water  and  nothing  else. 
While  many  words  in  science  have  many  meanings, 
water  has  only  one ;  water  means  water  and  nothing- 
else. 

By  reference  to  Fig.  43  it  will  be  seen  that  meats 
and  leguminous  fruits  are  particularly  rich  in  nitro- 
gen, hence  the  best  adapted  for  flesh  and  strength. 
Leguminous  fruits  are  also  very  rich  in  carbohydrates, 
hence  well  adapted  to  make  fat  and  heat,  but  not 
any  more  so  than  bread,  which,  however,  contains 
comparatively  little  nitrogen,  hence  will  not  be  so 
good  for  muscle  and  strength.  Study  for  a  moment 
and  you  will  see  why  it  has  come  to  pass  that  when 
one  tries  to  set  a  good  dinner  he  will  have  both 
fish  and  meat.  As  you  have  already  learned,  we 
require  nearly  as  much  fat  as  we  do  of  albumen  ; 
meat    contains    only  11     per   cent,    of    fat   and   20   per 


160 


IIYOIENE. 


cent,  of  albumen ;  but  fish  contains  also  7  per  cent,  of 
fat,  which  added  to  the  11  per  cent,  in  meat,  brings 
the  quantity  of  fat  up  to  18  per  cent.,  very  nearly  up 
to  the  20  per  cent,  of  albumen  in  meat.  But  we 
also  require  a  very  large  quantity  of  starch,  which  is 
a   carbohydrate   (as   much   as  10.7  ounces   in    24  hours), 


Explanation 
Human  milk 
Cow's  milk. 


Nitrogenous. 


Fats. 


Carbohydrates. 


ZViW-P'A 


86 


Meat. 


Fish 


Leguminous  fruits    . 


Potatoes 


Green  vegetables  . 


Bread 


^m 


23/2            Z 

Sf 

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SgSlllsSgSSSSpl^iggfgg 

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88 

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~:~:-"-:-~   '."■     J 

Fiu.  43. 


Diagram  showing  the  Proportion  of  the  Principal  Foodstuffs  in  a  Few  Typical 
Comestibles.  The  numbers  indicate  percentages.  Salts  and  indigestible 
materials  omitted. 


very  much  more  than  is  required  of  albumen  and  fat 
put  together.  Meat  and  fish  contain  no  carbohydrates, 
no  starch;  but  look  at  the  great  quantity  in  bread,  and 
you  will  no  longer  wonder  that  bread  is  on  the  table 
at  every  meal.  Human  milk,  cow's  milk,  leguminous 
fruits   and  bread  are  the  only  articles  in  this  table  that 


FOOD — COOKING.  161 

contain  all  of  the  ingredients  necessary  to  the  suste- 
nance of  life,  but  with  the  exceptions  of  human  milk 
and  cow's  milk  they  do  not  contain  these  ingredients 
in  the  requisite  proportions.  Hence  we  can  readily 
believe,  as  numerous  experiments  have  demonstrated, 
that  no  one  group  of  the  foodstuffs  enumerated  can 
alone  sustain  the  body,  but  rather  prove  that  a  certain 
proportion  of  each  is  absolutely  necessary   for  life. 

From  what  we  have  studied  we  can  deduce  the 
following  conclusion :  that  if  there  be  any  special  con- 
dition of  nutrition  to  meet,  we  have  a  general  foun- 
dation upon  which  to  base  our  dietary.  Thus  if  mus- 
cular strength  be  the  requisite,  nitrogenous  food,  or 
that  rich  in  albumen,  such  as  meat,  milk,  eggs  and 
peas  will  meet  the  requirement.  If  increase  of  weight 
be  desired  by  the  accumulation  of  fat,  or  if  an  increase 
of  bodily  heat  seems  desirable,  then  the  carbohydrates 
and  the  fats,  sugar,  starch,  cheese,  vegetables,  fat 
tissue   of  meat,  etc.,    are   called   for. 

The  following  bill-of-fare,  while  intended  for  a  dys- 
peptic or  one  wiiose  digestive  function  is  not  perfect, 
will  yet  serve  as  a  guide  iu  eating  to  one  whose 
digestive  function  is  good ;  because,  since  it  allows 
that  which  is  easy  of  digestion  and  forbids  that  which 
is  difficult,  it  wiil  be  evident  that  the  function  of  even 
healthy  digestion  will  be  better  conserved  by  a  more 
or  less  close  adherence  thereto. 

Eat 

Soups,    efc.— Thin  soups,  beef  tea,  broths. 
Fish. — Raw  oysters. 


162  HYGIENE. 

Meats. — Beef,  mutton,  lamb,  cliicken,  game,  ven- 
ison, chopped  meat,  meat  pulp. 

Eggs. — Poached,    soft  boiled,    or  raw. 

Bread  and  Farinaceous  articles. — Bread,  corn 
bread,  rice  cakes,  buckwheat  cakes,  macaroni,  sago, 
tapioca. 

Vegetables  and  Fruits. — Green  vegetables,  such  as 
spinach,  turnip  tops,  cresses,  salads,  celery,  lettuce, 
string  beans,  dandelion,  chicory,  asparagus ;  oranges,  ripe 
peaches   and  pears. 

Do  Not  Eat 
Rich    soups,    any    fried   foods,    veal,     pork,    hashes, 
stews,     gravies,    made     dishes,     sauces,    desserts,    pies, 
pastry,      puddings,      ice-cream,      uncooked      vegetables, 
cooked  oysters. 


There  is  an  apparent  contradiction  between  this 
diet  table  and  Rule  I.,  in  which  you  are  told  to  eat 
everything  except  that  which  experience  teaches  will 
disagree  with  you ;  but  the  contradiction  is  not  a  real 
one,  for  experience  will  soon  teach  the  majority  of 
persons  that  those  articles  placed  in  the  forbidden  list 
will  disagree  with  them. 

You  probably  wonder  why  potatoes  have  been  left 
out  of  this  list;  it  was  because  they  deserve  a  special 
paragraph  for  themselves.  -  Potatoes  are  very  nourish- 
ing, but  it  requires  a  good  strong  digestive  function 
that  they  may  be  digested.  The  strong,  hearty,  vig- 
orous Irishman,  in  his  beautiful  native  country,  can  eat, 
digest,  and   make   strength   out   of   potatoes ;    but   it   is 


FOOD — COOKING.  163 

not  every  one  of  the  weaker  stomachs  of  this  coun- 
try that  can  digest  them.  However,  potatoes  should 
be  eaten  unless  they  are  found  to  disagree.  Of  all 
vegetable  food,  peas  and  beans  are  the  most  nourishing. 

Do  I  expect  you  to  eat  only  that  which  is  allowed 
in  this  diet  list  ?  No  more  than  I  expect  you  to 
abandon  the  house  and  live  in  a  tent;  I  am  setting- 
up  for  you  a  standard,  and  the  more  closely  you 
adhere  to  this  standard  the  better  will  it  be  for  your 
health. 

One  word  as  to  cooking.  Food  is  cooked  before 
being  eaten  for  three  reasons.  1.  Cooking  makes  it 
more  agreeable  to  the  taste ;  2.  Cooking  makes  it 
easier  of  digestion ;  3.  Cooking  destroys  disease 
germs  that  may  exist  in  the  uncooked  food.  It  is 
only  the  third  proposition  that  we  will  discuss.  Food, 
particularly  that  derived  from  the  animal  kingdom,  is 
likely  to  contain  the  germ  or  seed  of  some  disease 
that  may  have  afflicted  the  animal  from  which  this 
food  has  been  taken.  If  eaten  raw  or  but  little 
cooked,  this  germ  or  seed,  taken  into  the  human  body, 
may  develop  therein  and  give  rise  to  disease.  Hence 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  all  food  should 
be  tliorouglily  cooked  before  it  is  eaten. 

The  manner  of  cooking  does  not  matter  much, 
except  in  the  instance  of  frying.  Ordinary  frying 
will  render  the  food  so  cooked  very  indigestible, 
because  the  slowly  heated  fat  evolves  fatty  acids  which 
are  more  or  less  injurious,  and  by  penetrating  into  the 
particles   of   the    frying   food    envelop    them   in   grease. 


164  HYGIENE. 

As  fats  are  not  digestible  in  the  stomach,  it  follows 
that  food  so  fried  cannot  be  properly  dissolved  by  the 
gastric  juice,  but  becomes  an  irritant.  It  is  claimed 
that  scientific  frying  is  one  of  the  very  best  modes  of 
cooking,  and  to  fry  properly  the  fat  should  be  boiling- 
hot  before  the  food  is  put  into  it,  that  an  outer  crust 
may  be  formed  which  will  prevent  the  fats  from  pene- 
trating to  the  interior,  and  the  fat  should  boil  during 
the  entire  process  of  frying. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

203.  How  much  of  each  kind  of  food  will  an  adult  man  require 
daily  ? 

204.  How  do  you  divide  food  ? 

205.  What  are  nitrogenous  foods? 

206.  What  is  albuminoid  material  ? 

207.  What  are  non-nitrogenous  foods? 

208.  What  is  carbon,  and  what  class  of  food  is  particularly  rich 
therein  ? 

201).  For  what  purposes  is  food  consumed,  and  which  class  of  foods 
is  best  calculated  to  produce  each  result? 

210.  What  about  salts  and  water? 

211.  Why  is  a  mixed  diet  the  most  healthful? 

212.  What  do  you  say  of  potatoes? 

213.  Why  is  cooking  necessary? 

214.  What  do  you  say  of  the  manner  of  cooking? 

215.  What  is  scientific  frying? 


EXCRETION.  165 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
EXCRETION. 

You  have  not  forgotten  that  matter  is  indestruc- 
tible, and  that  which  seems  to  us  like  destruction 
is  but  a  change  of  form.  You  must  also  know  that 
all  matter  is  made  up  of  a  combination  of  ele- 
mentary substances.  So  far  as  the  human  body  is  con- 
cerned it  is  a  compound  of  fifteen  elements;  1.  Oxygen; 
2.  Hydrogen;  3.  Nitrogen;  4.  Chlorine;  5.  Fluorine; 
6.  Carbon;  7.  Phosphorus;  8.  Calcium;  9.  Sulphur; 
10.  Sodium;  11.  Potassium;  12.  Iron;  13.  Magnesium; 
14.   Silicon ;  15.  Manganese. 

While  there  are  some  seventy  elements  known  to 
chemistry,  it  is  only  the  fifteen  enumerated  above  that 
enter  into    the   composition  of  the  human  body. 

Four  of  these  elements — carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen 
and  nitrogen — make   up   97   per   cent,  of  the  body. 

It  is  the  constant  union  of  these  elements  into 
compounds,  and  the  equally  constant  breaking  up 
again  of  these  compounds  into  elements,  and  the  re- 
uniting of  these  elements  into  some  other  compounds, 
that  constitute  the  phenomena  of  life. 

Chemical  change  is  constantly  going  on  in  animal 
life  and  after  death ;  during  life  there  is  a  constant 
building   up   into    compounds    and  breaking  down  into 


166  HYGIENE. 

elements;  at  the  moment  of  death  the  building  up 
into  compounds  ceases  and  the  breaking  down  into 
elements  alone  continues,  until  "man  has  returned  to 
the  dust  from  which  he  lias  come." 

Life  of  the  body  implies  a  constant  building  up 
and  a  constant  breaking  down,  and  the  perfect  human  life 
will  be  that  in  which  these  two  processes  are  evenly 
balanced.  It  must  be  evident  that  from  the  moment 
of  birth  until  the  period  of  physical  maturity  has 
been  reached,  the  x^rocess  of  building  up  will  pre- 
dominate over  that  of  breaking  down ;  because  not 
only  must  the  ordinary  phenomena  of  life  be  pro- 
vided for,  but  the  increased  growth  and  devehypment 
of  the  body  call  for  an  excess  of  building  up.  When 
the  period  of  maturity  has  passed,  and  old  age  is 
creeping  on,  as  the  time  comes  nearer  and  nearer  for 
the  cessation  of  life,  then  will  the  process  of  ' '  breaks 
ing  down"  predominate  over  that  of  building  up. 
But  during  the  years  of  maturity  when  the  body 
sIk, nhl  be  adding  nothing  to,  and  losing  nothing 
from,  its  bulk,  the  two  processes  of  "building  up" 
and    "breaking   down"    should   be   evenly  balanced. 

The  final  element  of  the  human  body  is  called  by 
physiologists  a  Cell. 

The  word  cell  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
cella,  meaning  a  closet  or  storeroom,  and  a  cell  may 
be  defined  as  a  mass  of  'protoplasm,  capable  of  rnani- 
fesling  all  the  phenomena  of  life.  Protoplasm  is  a 
colorless,  pale,  milky,  semi-translucent  substance,  vary- 
ing in   consistency  from    that    of    a    gum    solution    to 


EXCRETION.  167 

that  of  a  soft  jelly.  There  are  many  different  kinds 
of  cells  in  the  different  parts  of  the  body,  and  they 
vary  in  size  from  the  1-3600  to  the  1-300  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  Each  cell  possesses  the  power  of  divid- 
ing itself  into  two,  and  each  of  these  again  into  two, 
and  so  on  indefinitely.  We  have  said  that  these  cells 
are  capable  of  manifesting  all  the  phenomena  of  life, 
and  as  motion  is  a  prime  requisite  of  life,  you  will 
be  prepared  to  learn  that  each  of  these  little  cells 
possesses  the  power  of  individual  motion.  Without 
going  too  minutely  into  this  cell  question,  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  say  that  what  the  individual  soldier  is 
to  the  army  the  individual  cell  is  to  the  body.  In 
an  army  of  1,000,000  of  men  we  find  all  sizes  and 
shapes  and  styles  of  men;  different  uniforms  and  fire- 
arms ;  some  men  have  one  duty  to  perform,  others 
another,  but  each  individual  man  is  endowed  with 
life,  and  it  is  the  result  of  the  part  performed  by 
each  that  constitutes  the  efficiency  of  the  army. 

So  in  the  human  body  there  are  millions  and  thou- 
sands of  millions  of  cells,  of  many  different  styles  and 
shapes,  each  with  its  own  particular  duty  to  perforin, 
each  individual  cell  endowed  with  life,  and  it  is  the 
result  of  the  labor  of  these  countless  myriads  of  little 
workers  that  constitutes  what  is  evident  in  you  as  the 
life  of  the  body.  Get  this  idea  well  fixed  in  your 
minds.  The  individual  cell,  endowed  with  life,  is  the 
unit  of  life ;  and  it  is  the  aggregation  and  combination 
of  uncountable  numbers  of  cells,  and  their  labor,  that 
makes  the  human  body  and  the  life  of   that  body.     All 


1(58  HYGIENE. 

the  organs,  and  tissues,  and  parts  of  the  body,  each 
differing  in  structure  one  from  the  other,  are  all  made 
up  of  cells,  the  cells  differing  in  the  different  parts  of 
the  body.  You  remember  that  a  muscle  is  made  up  of 
a  number  of  bundles  of  muscular  fibres,  and  that  each 
fibre  is  made  up  of  a  number  of  fibrillse  or  little  fibres. 
Well,  now  you  will  learn  that  each  fibrllla  is  com- 
posed of  a  combination  of  cells.  As  in  the  muscle,  so 
in  every  other  part  of  the  body,  the  organ  or  part  is  a 
compound  body  having  for  its  original  element  the 
cell;  so  that  the  human  body  might  really  be  said  to 
be  a  combination  of  cells.  This  must  make  very  clear 
to  you  the  position  of  a  cell  as  the  element  of  the 
structure  of  the  body,  but  you  must  not  forget  that 
each  minute  little  cell  is  endowed  with  life,  possessing 
all  the  attributes  of  life  (except  mentality)  that  is 
enjoyed  by  your  body  as  a  whole ;  that  each  cell  is 
really  a  little  living,  moving  man,  woman,  boy  or  girl, 
according  to  the  body  that  it  inhabits,  and  that  it  is 
the  aggregate  lives  of  these  cells  that  constitute  the  life 
of  your  body  as  a  whole. 

So  that  the  cell  is  both  the  anatomical  and  physio- 
logical element  of  the  human  body.  Now,  then,  so 
long  as  any  body  lives,  that  is  to  say,  so  long  as  it  is 
capable  of  performing  its  functions,  it  must  constantly 
undergo  certain  chemical  changes,  a  kind  of  decomposi- 
tion, tending  to  produce  disintegration,  and  a  reinte- 
gration by  means  of  new  chemical  associations  with 
fresh  material.  This  is  true  of  the  body  at  large,  and 
it  is  equally  true  of  each  individual  cell  of  which  the 


EXCRETION.  169 

body  is  composed.  When  the  food  that  we  eat  has  by 
the  processes  of  digestion,  absorption  and  assimilation 
become  an  integral  part  of  the  cell,  it  consists  of  some 
of  the  fifteen  elements  already  mentioned,  so  combined 
and  arranged  together  as  to  be  just  suited  for  the  life 
of  this  cell,  and  as  a  result  its  vital  phenomena  become 
manifest;  but  in  the  very  production  of  this  life  these 
elements  have  been  disarranged  in  their  combination ; 
they  have  become  separated  or  have  formed  into  new 
combinations,  not  fitted  to  sustain  life ;  as  such  they 
are  no  longer  of  any  use  to  the  body,  will  prove  harm- 
ful if  allowed  to  remain,  hence  they  must  be  removed, 
and  the  function  by  which  they  are  removed  is  the 
function  of  Excretion. 

Is  this  question  perfectly  clear?  If  not,  let  us  try 
again,  so  that  there  can  be  no  possibility  of  misunder- 
standing. We  will  take  our  familiar  illustration  of  the 
fire  in  the  stove.  Coal  goes  into  the  stove;  gases, 
smoke  and  ashes  come  out  of  the  stove.  If  you  should 
collect  all  of  the  gases,  smoke  and  ashes  given  off  from 
a  ton  of  coal  you  would  find  that  they  would  weigh 
exactly  one  ton ;  but  the  composition  of  these  gases, 
ashes  and  smoke  is  very  different  from  the  composi- 
tion of  coal,  although  the  same  elements  will  be  found 
in  all.  The  coal  has  undergone  chemical  change,  and 
in  its  changed  condition  is  no  longer  of  use  in  the 
stove,  hence  it  is  removed  as  waste,  while  as  a  result  of 
this  chemical  change  heat  and  light  have  been  pro- 
duced. So  in  the  human  body  the  food  undergoes 
chemical    change,   and   in   doing     so  gives    rise  to   the 


170  HYGIENE. 

phenomena  of  life;  but,  as  a  result  of  this  chemical 
change,  it  is  no  longer  suited  to  maintain  life,  it 
becomes,  waste,  and  must  be  removed. 

In  every  city  there  is  a  variety  of  waste  material ; 
we  find  ashes,  garbage,  foul  water,  dust,  street  dirt,  waste 
from  human  beings,  etc.  ;  so  in  the  human  body  also 
there  are  many  kinds  of  waste.  In  the  well-governed 
city  there  is  an  efficient  system  of  scavenging ;  one  man, 
with  his  cart  and  horse,  will  call  for  and  remove  the 
garbage ;  another  the  ashes ;  still  others  the  street  dirt ; 
while  the  ingenuity  of  man  has  devised  a  system  of  pipes 
for  the  removal  of  the  foul  water  and  the  human  waste. 
So  also  in  the  human  body  there  are  a  number  of  scav- 
enging organs  belonging  to  the  excretory  system,  each 
with  its  own  particular  duty  to  perform.  But,  unlike  the 
waste -gatherers  of  the  city,  who,  as  a  rule,  will  do  only 
that  which  is  allotted  to  them  (and  generally  only  half 
do  that)  the  excretory  organs  of  the  body  are  friendly 
and  neighborly,  and  if  one  organ  becomes  more  or  less 
incapacitated  for  work  by  disease  or  injury,  some  other 
organ  will  take  upon  itself  the  work  of  the  disordered 
one. 

The  lungs,  the  kidneys,  the  liver,  the  skin  and  the 
bowels  constitute  the  excretory  system.  There  are  two- 
lungs,   two  kidneys,  one  liver,  one  skin  and  one  bowels. 

The  lungs  are  located  one  in  each  side  of  the  chest, 
and  their  anatomy  you  are  already  familiar  with.  In 
addition  to  the  elimination  of  carbonic  acid,  the  air 
expired  from  the  lungs  contains  waste  organic  matter, 
the  result  of  the  tissue  changes,  already  described.     There 


EXCRETION. 


171 


are  two  lungs,  I  have  said,  and  if  one  becomes  diseased 
or   unfit   to  do  its  full  measure  of  work,  its  companion 


Jlfern/L 


Fig.  44. 
The  Lungs  and  Heart  (viewed  in  front). 


takes  upon  itself  extra 
work  to  make  up  for  the 
deficiency  of  its  unfor- 
tunate comrade.  Since 
the  lungs  excrete  organic 
matter,  you  can  under- 
stand why  it  is  that  car- 
bonic acid  is  not  the  only 
poisonous  ingredient  of 
the  air  of  an  ill- ventilated 
room . 

The    kidneys,    two  in    number,    are    located    in    the 

"small  of  the  back,"  one 
on  either  side  of  the  spinal 
column,  or  backbone.  The 
kidneys  are  very  small 
organs  when  compared  witli 
the  amount  of  work  that 
they  are  called  upon  to  per- 
form ;  for  if  it  were  possible 
to  name  one  excretory  or- 
gan as  more  important  than 
another,  the  kidney  would  be 
the  organ  so  distinguished. 
Of  course,  such  a  distinc- 
tion cannot-  be  made,  as  the 
function  of  one  part  is  as  essential  to  healthy  life  as 
that  of   another. 


Fig.  45. 

A  Kidney — .1,  an  artery  ;  B,  a  vein  ; 
C,  the  duct  that  carries  away  the 
materials  filtered  from  the  blood. 


172  HYGIENE. 

You  have  now  a  clear  conception  of  the  uses  of 
nitrogenous  food  and  the  kinds  of  tissue  that  it  nour- 
ishes. It  is  chiefly  the  waste  of  nitrogenous  tissue 
that  is  removed  by  the  kidneys.  Meat  is  very  rich  in 
nitrogen ;  hence  if  we  eat  more  meat  than  the  body 
requires  and  can  utilize,  the  excess  must  be  removed 
by  the  kidneys.  Thus  it  is  that  we  find  kidney  disease 
so  prevalent  amongst  great  meat-eaters  who  take  very 
little  exercise.  This  point  will  be  more  fully  discussed 
in  the  chapter  on  Exercise. 

In  the  existence  of  ttvo  kidneys  we  again  find  evi- 
dence of  the  wise  forethought  of  our  Creator;  for  when 
one  becomes  deranged  the  other  is  ready  and  able  to 
take  on  extra  work  and  thus  make  good  the  deficiency. 

You  already  have  a  fairly  good  idea  of  the  excretory 
function  of  the  skin.  You  remember  the  millions  of 
sweat  and  sebaceous  glands  located  everywhere  in  the 
skin ;  and  you  remember  that  they  not  only  bring  water 
to  the  surface  of  the  body,  to  regulate  by  evaporation 
the  temperature  of  the  body,  but  that  this  water  con- 
tains organic  waste,  which,  when  the  water  evaporates, 
is  deposited  upon  the  skin,  from  which  it  must  be 
r< 'moved  by  washing. 

There  is  a  very  close  and  intimate  relation  between 
the  excretory  functions  of  the  skin  and  kidneys.  In 
summer,  when  the  skin  is  perspiring  freely,  the  kidneys 
are  less  active,  and  vice  versa;  and  this  relationship 
will  explain  how  " taking  cold,"  by  checking  the 
action  of  the  skin,  will  sometimes  act  disastrously  upon 
the  kidneys. 


EXCRETION.  173 

The  bowels,  you  already  know,  is  a  tube  about  20 
feet  long,  which  is  both  a  digestive  and  an  excretory 
tube.  In  addition  to  the  waste,  that  is  the  result  of 
life,  there  is  also  a  great  mass  of  waste  that  is  made 
up  of  the  indigestible  and  undigested  constituents  of 
the  food;  this  is  gradually  pushed  along  the  bowels 
until  it  is  finally  voided  from  the  body. 

Now  get  this  idea  well  fixed.  The  function  of 
assimilation  is  a  process  by  which  each  little  cell 
selects  from  the  circulating  blood  that  which  is  neces- 
sary to  its  life ;  the  process  of  excretion  is  that  by 
which  each  little  cell  gives  back  to  the  blood  that 
which  it  has  taken  from  it,  so  altered  that  it  has 
become  useless  in  the  body,  to  be  carried  by  the  blood 
to  the  particular  organ  whose  duty  it  is  to  remove  it 
from  the  body. 

Down  in  Florida  they  have  an  ingenious  machine 
for  sorting  oranges.  It  consists  of  an  inclined  plane, 
perforated  by  a  number  of  holes  of  different  sizes;- 
the  smaller  ones  at  the  top,  increasing  in  size  as  they 
descend.  The  oranges  from  the  tree  are  elevated  to 
the  top  of  this  incline  and  allowed  to  roll  down.  All 
the  oranges  of  one  size  will  fall  through  holes  of  one 
size  into  bins  below;  and  the  sorting  into  sizes  is  thus 
accomplished  mnch  more  rapidly  and  accurately  than 
it  could  possibly  be  done  by  the  hand  and  eye  of 
man.  While  crude,  the  comparison  will  give  us  an 
idea  of  the  functions  of  assimilation  and  excretion. 
The  nutritive  elements  in  the  blood  roll  along  and 
along    until    they    find    a    cell    into    which    they   will, 


174  HYGIENE. 

chemically  and  physiologically,  accurately  fit;  then 
they  fall  through  into  this  cell.  The  waste  material 
in  the  blood  flows  along  until  it  finds  a  cell  in  some 
excretory  organ  just  suited  to  receive  it ;  then  it  falls 
out  of  the  blood  into  this  cell  and  is  removed  from 
the  body.  Again,  let  me  remind  you  that  the  cell  is 
the  unit  of  life,  and  that  when  we  are  thus  referring 
to  the  function  of  one  little  cell,  we  are  simply 
reducing  the  functions  of  life  down  to  the  smallest 
possible  fractions.  When  we  say  that  one  cell  in  the 
kidney  removes  some  nitrogenous  waste  from  the 
blood,  we  must  understand  that  myriads  of  cells  in 
the  kidney  are  doing  the  same  work,  and  that  the 
aggregate  labor  of  all  these  kidney  cells  constitutes 
the   function   of   the   kidney   itself. 

If  it  be  necessary  that  the  body  shall  be  nourished, 
and  every  child  knows  that  it  is,  it  is  equally  neces- 
sary that  the  waste  shall  be  removed  therefrom.  Not 
only  will  the  undue  retention  of  waste  in  the  body 
prove  detrimental  to  the  health  of  the  body  as  a  whole, 
but  it  will  oppress  and  depress  every  function  of  the 
body,  so  that  the  function  of  nutrition,  as  well  as  all 
the  varied  phenomena  of  life,  will  be  improperly  per- 
formed. 

The  public  have  great  fear  of  a  convulsion.  Now 
let  us  see  what  a  convulsion  is.  A  convulsion,  in  its 
broadest  sense,  is  characterized  by  a  loss  of  conscious- 
ness, and  irregular,  jerky  motions  of  the  muscles  of  the 
body.  In  diseases  of  the  kidneys  convulsions  frequently 
occur.     Now    see    what  happens.      The    kidneys,    being 


EXCRETION.  175 

diseased,  are  not  able  fully  to  remove  the  nitrogenous 
waste  from  the  body.  At  first  comparatively  little 
remains,  but  this  little  manifests  its  deleterious  influ- 
ence by  interfering  with  all  the  functions  and  rjroduc- 
ing  a  low  standard  of  health.  Gradually,  as  time 
1  Kisses,  and  the  kidneys  become  still  less  equal  to  their 
task,  more  and  yet  more  of  this  wTaste  accumulates  in 
the  blood,  until  the  quantity  becomes  so  great  that  it 
is  absolutely  able  to  overcome  the  highest  attribute  of 
man,  his  intellect.  All  intelligence  is  suspended,  all 
voluntary  control  of  the  voluntary  functions  of  life  is 
lost  by  the  evil  influence  of  this  retained  wraste  upon 
the  brain.  The  muscles  and  the  nerves  that  convey 
power  to  these  muscles  to  move  are  there,  but  the 
mind  no  longer  is  in  control ;  the  brain,  however, 
though  deprived  of  its  power  of  thought,  is  yet  subject 
to  the  action  of  irritants,  and,  irritated  by  this  waste, 
it  automatically,  or  reflexly,  sends  out  all  sorts  of 
irregular  and  irrational  commands  to  the  muscles,  in 
response  to  which  they  jerk  and  twist  and  squirm  and 
contort  into  every  conceivable  shape,  producing  the  hor- 
rifying and  awe-inspiring  spectacle  of  a  convulsion. 
This  is  but  a  forcible  illustration  of  what  occurs  when- 
ever the  waste  that  should  be  removed  from,  is  retained 
in,  the  body,  and  from  it  we  deduce  the  conclusion 
that  the  regular  and  full  function  of  the  excretory 
organs  is   absolutely  essential   to  health. 


170  HYGIENE. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

216.  How  many  elements  are  known  to  chemistry,  and  how  many  of 
these  elements  enter  into  the  composition  of  the  human  body  ? 

217.  What  constitutes  the  phenomena  of  life? 

218.  What  chemical  changes  are  continually  going  on? 

219.  What  about  the  process  of  building  up  and  breaking  down  ? 

220.  What  is  the  final  element  of  the  human  body  ? 

221.  What  is  protoplasm? 

222.  Describe  a  cell;  its  size;  method  of  reproduction  and  function  ? 

223.  Are  these  cells  alive  ? 

224.  What  is  the  function  of  excretion  t 

225.  Give  an  illustration,  using  the  stove. 

226.  Is  there  but  one  form  of  waste  ? 

227.  How  is  the  excretory  system  composed  ? 

228.  What  of  the  reciprocal  relation  between  the  different  excretory 
organs  ? 

229.  How  do  the  lungs  act  as  scavengers  ? 

230.  What  is  the  function  of  the  kidneys? 

231.  Why  is  kidney  disease  so  prevalent  among  great  meat-eaters? 

232.  Why  do  we  have  two  kidneys  ? 

233.  What  is  the  excretory  function  of  the  skin,  and  what  relation 
is  there  between  it  and  that  of  the  kidneys? 

234.  What  is  the  excretory  function  of  the  bowels  ? 

235.  What  is  the  process  of  assimilation  ? 

236.  What  is  a  convulsion ?  how  produced? 


THE    BONKS    AND   THE    SKELETON.  177 


CHAPTER  XI V. 
THE   BONES   AND    THE    SKELETON. 

We  have  now  a  very  fair  knowledge  of  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  various  organs  and 
parts  of  the  human  body.  But  all  of  these  parts 
are  soft  and,  if  left  to  themselves,  would  fall  into  a 
confused  heap.  Hence  it  is  necessary  that  they 
should  be  supported.  Most  of  the  vital  organs  are 
delicate  and  tender  in  proportion  to  the  delicacy  of 
the  functions  they  are  called  upon  to  perform ;  hence 
they  must  be  protected  from  injury.  The  human 
body  has  a  definite  shape,  peculiarly  its  own ;  where 
does  it  get  this  shape?  The  muscles  must  have  points 
of  attachment,  else  their  contractions  will  be  useless ; 
where  do  they  find  these  points?  All  of  these  condi- 
tions and  the  answer  to  all  of  these  queries  are  to 
be  found  in  the  skeleton,  or  ;ibony  system." 

Chemically,  bone  consists  of — 

Parts. 
Phosphate  of  calcium,  ....        53 

Carbonate  of  calcium,     ....  11 

Phosphate  of  magnesium,  fluoride  of  calcium 

and  soda  salts,              .          .         .         .  1 

Gelatin,  yielding  animal  matter,       .         .  33 

98 


178 


HYGIENE. 


The  mineral   matter    gives    the    hardness,    while  the 
gelatin    gives   a  certain   amount    of    pliancy    to    bone. 

Every  child  is  familiar 
with  the  general  appear- 
ance of  bone,  hence  it 
will  be  useless  to  waste 
time  in  a  description. 

If  you  go  to  the 
butcher  shop  and  get  the 
butcher  to  give  you  a 
bone,  and  if  you  put 
this  bone  into  a  solution 
of  muriatic  acid  and 
leave  it  there  for  a  time,, 
when  you  take  it  out 
the  shape  will  be  the 
same  as  before,  but  you 
will  find  that  the  bone 
has  become  like  soft 
glue;  it  can  be  bent 
and  twisted,  and,  if  a 
long  bone,  can  be  tied 
into  a  knot.  Now  get 
another  bone  and  put  it 
into  the  lire  for  a  few 
hours.  Lift  it  carefully 
out.  The  shape  will  be 
the  same,  but  you  can 
crumble  it  into  dust  between  your  fingers.  In  the  first 
instance,    the    acid  has  dissolved   out   the    mineral  and 


Fjg.  46. 
The  Skeleton. 


THE  BONES  AND  THE  SKELETON.  179 

left  the  animal  matter;  in  the  second  instance  the 
lire  has  burnt  out  the  animal  and  left  the  mineral 
matter. 

It  is  important  that  you  should  understand  well 
the  nature  of  these  two  constituents  of  bone,  because 
they   have  a   practical   bearing. 

In  childhood  the  animal  matter  predominates  over 
the  mineral ;  hence  it  is  that,  in  proportion  to  the 
falls  and  accidents  of  children,  so  comparatively 
few  bones  are  broken ;  while  in  old  age  the  animal 
matter  is  lessened  and  the  mineral  ingredients  greatly 
in  excess,  in  consequence  of  which  the  bones  are  so 
brittle  that  they  will  sometimes  break  with  no  more 
exertion  than  that  of  getting  out  of  bed. 

Because  of  the  different  purposes  for  which  they 
are  intended,  we  find  all  sizes  and  shapes  of  bones. 
In  the  arms  and  legs  the  bones  are  long;  the  shoulder 
blades  are  flat ;  the  bones  of  the  fingers  and  toes  are 
some  of  them  oblong,  others  square,  while  still  others 
possess  peculiar  shapes  adapted  to  the  duty  they  have 
to  perform. 

The  "backbone"  is  not  one  single  bone,  as  many 
suppose,  but  consists  of  a  number  of  bones  placed  one 
on  top  of  another,  each  being  capable  of  motion  on  the 
other,  which  allows  of  the  various  motions  of  the 
body. 

From  the  backbone  the  ribs  pass  outwards,  for- 
wards and  inwards,  like  the  hoops  of  a  barrel,  to  be 
attached,  most  of  them,  to  the  breastbone  in  front, 
thereby  inclosing  and  affording   protection  to  the  vital 


180  IIYGIEJNE, 

organs  (the  lungs  and  heart)  within  the  cavity  of  the 
chest. 

The  skull  is  a  bony  covering  of,  and  protection  to, 
the  brain ;  and  that  this  protection  may  be  the  greater 
where  it  is  the  most  required,  we  find  those  portions 
of  the  skull  covering  and  protecting  the  more  vital 
portions  of  the  brain  to  be  thicker  than  other  parts. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  joints  in  the  skeleton : 
1,  The  hinge  joints,  and  2,  the  ball  and  socket 
joints. 

The  lunge  joint,  as  its  name  implies,  allows  only 
of  that  motion  of  flexion  and  extension  that  would 
be  the  case  if  two  bones  were  joined  together  by  an 
ordinary  door  hinge.  The  working  of  the  hinge  joint 
is  seen  in  the  knee  and  the  elbow.  The  ball  and 
socket  joint,  in  addition  to  the  hinge-like  movement, 
allows  of  a  rotary  motion,  and  its  action  is  seen  in  the 
hip-joint. 

Now,  if  you  have  followed  me  attentively  and 
thoughtfully  thus  far,  you  have  as  clear  a  knowledge 
of  the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  human  body 
as  it  is  possible  for  one  16  acquire  unless  he  makes  a 
special  study  thereof,  and  goes  into  the  dissecting  room 
and  dissects  a  number  of  human  bodies ;  and  you  cer- 
tainly have  enough  of  this  knowledge  to  enable  you  to 
understand  clearly  the  portions  of  this  book  that  will 
follow. 


THE    BONKS    AND    THE    SKELETON.  181 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

237.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  skeleton  ? 

238.  What  is  the  chemical  composition  of  bone?  and  what  purpose 
does  each  ingredient  serve? 

239.  If  you  soak  a  bone  in  muriatic  acid  what  happens? 

240.  What  effect  has  fire  on  bone? 

241.  What   is  the  predominant  element  in  the  bones  of  childhood? 
of  old  age?     What  are  the  sizes  and  shapes  of  bones? 

242.  How  is  the    backbone  made   up  ?     What  are  the  ribs,  and 
what  do  they  protect  ? 

243.  What  is  the  skull,  and  what  is  its  duty? 

244.  How  many  kinds  of  joints  are  there  ?  illustrate  them. 


1 82  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
GENERAL    CONSIDERATION    OF    HYGIENE. 

Now,  in  the  very  beginning,  let  ns  clearly  under- 
stand what  we  mean  by  the  word  "hygiene."  It  is 
one  of  those  words,  derived  from  the  Latin  or  the 
Greek,  which  some  think  should  be  confined  entirely  to 
the  nse  of  doctors,  and  with  which  the  public  at  large 
has  nothing  whatever  to  do.  When  we  understand  that 
"hygiene"  means  the  preservation  of  health,  the  avoid- 
ance of  disease,  and  the  living  of  a  life  that  will  enable 
ns  to  reach  old  age,  we  can  readily  understand  that  it 
is  a  subject  with  which  the  public  has  everything  to  do. 

Well,  now  you  may  ask  the  question  whether  it  is 
possible  for  us  to  avoid  disease?  You  probably  have 
the  idea  which  almost  all  persons  seem  to  have,  that 
disease  comes  to  us  from  God  as  a  punishment  for  sin. 
This  is  the  idea  that  most  persons  have  had  from  the 
beginning  of  the  world,  and  while  it  is,  in  reality,  cor- 
rect, it  is  not  true  in  the  way  in  which  it  is  ordinarily 
understood.  I  mean  to  say  very  plainly  to  you,  that 
vny  many  diseases  are  preventable.  That  you  may 
clearly  understand  what  I  mean  by  this,  I  Avould 
remind  you  that,  according  to  the  Bible,  God  created  all 
of  us,  not  for  disease,  but  for  health.  It  was  the  inten- 
tion    of  the  Almighty  that   we  should   all   live  healthy 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATION    OF   HYGIENE.  183 

lives,  until  we  had  reached  an  age  beyond  which  life 
would  be  impossible,  and  that  we  should  then  simply 
cease  to  exist,  as  we  sometimes  see  very  old  persons 
doing.  The  Almighty  established  certain  laws,  which 
we  will  call  laws  of  nature,  and  he  intended,  or  wished, 
that  we  should  live  in  accordance  with  these  laws.  But, 
at  the  same  time,  he  gave  us  a  free  will,  so  that  it 
is  possible  for  us  to  obey  or  disobey  these  laws,  as  we 
see  tit. 

If  we  were  to  obey  the  laws  of  nature  strictly,  dis- 
ease would  be  unknown.  To  make  this  matter  clear 
and  plain  to  you,  let  me  remind  you  of  the  laws  that 
are  made  by  men  for  the  government  and  guidance  of 
cities.  If  now,  for  example,  when  some  of  you  boys  or 
girls  leave  this  school-room,  you  should  on  your  way 
home  engage  in  a  tight,  and  a  policeman  happened  to 
come  along,  the  chances  are  that  you  would  be  arrested. 
and  possibly  put  into  prison.  Now,  you  are  put  into 
prison  because  you  have  broken  some  of  the  laws  of  the 
city.  Just  in  the  same  way,  if  we  break  some  of  the 
laws  of  nature,  we  must  be  punished  for  our  disobedi- 
ence of  these  laws ;  and  just  as  the  prison  is  the  pun- 
ishment for  breaking  the  laws  of  men,  so  disease  is  the 
punishment  for  breaking  the  laws  of  God  in  the  phys- 
ical world. 

With  this  understanding,  you  will  probably  ask 
the  question,  does  disease  always  follow  disobedience 
of  the  laws  of  nature,  and  does  it  mean  that  when- 
ever a  person  is  sick,  he  or  she  has  broken  some 
law   of   nature?  and   I  answer,    yes;  although   the  rela- 


1 84  HYGIENE. 

tion  between  the  disobedience  of  the  law  and  the 
occurrence  of  the  disease  may  not  be  in  every  case 
clearly  made  out,  yet  at  the  same  time  the  punish- 
ment by  disease  for  the  breaking  of  a  law  of  nature  is 
very  much  more  certain  than  is  the  jmnishment  for  the 
breaking  of  the  law  of  man.  In  order  that  we  may 
be  punished  for  our  disobedience  to  the  laws  of  a 
city,  it  is  necessary  that  some  man  or  some  author- 
ity should  find  out  our  disobedience.  But  in  the  case 
of  nature  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  be  regardless  of 
her  laws  without  suffering  the  penalty;  because  God, 
seeing  everything,  is  always  capable  of  detecting  any 
disobedience  much  more  surely  than  will  be  the  case 
with  an  infringement  of  the  laws  of  man. 

To  go  back  for  a  moment.  I  have  said  you  may 
ask  whether  disease  will  always  follow  an  infringement 
of  the  laws  of  nature?  and  again  I  answer,  yes;  al- 
though the  departure  from  health  may  in  some  cases  be 
so  comparatively  slight  that  you  would  hardly  dignify  it 
with  the  name  of  disease.  As  a  natural  consequence  of 
the  question  just  asked,  you  will  be  apt  to  ask  whether 
we  can  always  avoid  disease?  and  in  answer  to  this 
question,  I  would  ask  you  carefully  to  bear  in  mind 
this  idea:  if  the  observance  of,  or  obedience  to,  the 
laws  of  nature  were  universal,  absolutely  universal, 
that  is  to  say,  if  everybody  strictly  obeyed  the  laws 
of  nature,  there  would  be  no  such  thing  as  disease 
in  the  world.  This  is  the  theoretical  way  of  looking  at 
it.  But,  practically  speaking,  a  certain  amount  of  dis- 
ease  will,  be    always   with    us;    because    while    you   or 


GENERAL   CONSIDERATION    OF   HYGIENE.  185 

I  might  obey  the  laws  of  nature  with  the  greatest 
diligence,  yet  at  the  same  time  the  neglect  of  our 
neighbor  to  observe  these  laws  might  subject  us  to 
many  of  the  causes  of  disease.  Now  I  think  you 
will  understand  what  is  meant  when  disease  is  spoken 
of  as  a  "  Visitation  of  Divine  Providence. "  It  is 
really  true,  as  has  always  been  believed,  that  disease 
does  come  to  us  as  a  punishment  from  God  for  sin; 
but  not,  as  was  once  held,  because  God  wishes  to 
afflict  us  with  suffering  and  death,  but  because  we 
have  disobeyed  the  laws  that  he  has  established,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  disease  and  premature  death  must 
surely  come  to  us. 

I  would  have  you  clearly  understand  before  we 
leave  this  part  of  the  subject,  that,  practically  speak- 
ing— (understand  what  I  mean  when  I  say  practically 
speaking :  I  mean  to  take  the  world  as  we  find  it,  and 
not  as  we  think  it  ought  to  be) — that  practically 
speaking,  disease  is,  in  very  many  cases,  unavoidable; 
because,  owing  to  the  conditions  in  which  many  of  us 
are  placed,  owing  to  the  way  in  which  many  of  us 
are  required  to  earn  our  living,  and  owing  to  the 
way  in  which  many  of  us  are  surrounded,  it  is  impos- 
sible for  us  strictly  to  live  in  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  nature.  Therefore  I  would  not  have  you  think  that 
every  person  that  is  sick  has  been  guilty  of  sin,  as 
we  ordinarily  understand  the  word  sin.  I  purposely 
say  so  much  about  this  subject  because,  after  all,  it 
is  the  whole  foundation  of  the  science  of  hygiene. 
To  repeat,  that   you   may  clearly  grasp   what  I  mean,  I 


186  HYGIENE. 

would  say  that  if  we  all  lived  in  accordance  with  the 
laws  of  nature  there  would  be  uo  disease  in  the 
world;  but  that  it  is  impossible  for  some  persons  to 
live  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  nature,  therefore 
there  is,  and  must  always  be,  more  or  less  disease  in 
the  world,  and  that  the  nearer  each  individual  con- 
forms to  the  laws  of  nature,  the  less  will  be  the  sum 
total  of  disease. 

If,  then,  there  ought  not  to  be  any  disease  in  the 
world,  do  I  mean  that  it  is  possible  for  any  person 
to  live  forever  ?  Do  I  mean  that  we  should  never 
die  ?  By  no  means ;  because,  as  I  have  already,  in 
my  '"Catechism  of  Hygiene,"  explained  to  you,  it 
lias  been  ordained  by  the  Almighty  that  every  living 
thing  that  has  life  must  die.  Not  only  does  every 
man,  woman,  dog,  cat,  horse,  cow  and  animal  of  every 
description  die,  but  so  also  does  every  leaf,  every 
vegetable,  every  living  thing,  after  passing  through  a 
period  of  usefulness  in  this- world,  cease  to  exist.  It 
dies;,  that  is  to  say,  it  loses  that  active  condition  of 
life  with  which  we    are    familiar   in    everything  organic. 

Let  us  understand  clearly  what  this  means.  As 
stated  in  the  beginning  of  this  book,  there  is  no  more 
matter  in  the  world  to-day  than  there  was  at  the 
beginning  of  time ;  neither  will  there  be  any  more  or 
any  less  matter  at  the  last  day  than  there  is  to-day. 
What  do  I  mean  by  matter  t  Without  going  into  a 
scientific  discussion  of  the  subject,  I  would  simply  say 
that  if  you  take  a  grain  of  corn  and  grind  it  up,  you 
have   a  lot  of  matter.     If  you  take  the  human  body,  it 


GENERAL   CONSIDERATION    OF   HYGIENE.  187 

is  made  up  of  matter  or  material.  This  will  probably 
give  you  an  idea  of  what  the  word  matter  means  suffi- 
ciently  comprehensive  for  our  purpose. 

Now,  as  I  say,  there  is  no  more  matter  in  the  world 
to-day  than  there  was  at  the  beginning  of  time.  In 
the  beginning  of  time,  God  made  a  certain  definite 
amount  of  matter,  and  he  established  certain  definite 
rules  to  regulate  this  matter.  A  certain  part  of  this 
matter  he  puts  together,  different  particles  one  with 
another,  until  he  makes  a  human  being.  This  human 
being  he  endows  with  a  certain  amount  of  what  we 
will  call  vital  force,  by  which  we  mean  that  he  gives  to 
this  amount  of  matter  a  rjower  that  enables  it  to  live, 
to  walk,  to  talk,  to  see,  to  hear,  to  think,  to  eat,  to  do 
everything  that  you  and  I  are  doing  every  day,  and 
which  we  call  life.  Now,  when  the  time  comes  that  we 
call  death,  this  matter  is  not  destroyed.  It  is  simply 
deprived  of  the  rjower  of  living.  That  which  we  call 
the  vital  force  leaves  it,  and  it  becomes  simply  a  mass 
of  matter  deprived  of  the  life  such  as  it  has  had  while 
it  constituted  our  bodies.  For  example,  one  who  looks 
on  you  now  sees  evidences  of  life  in  each  one  of  you, 
boys  and  girls.  When  the  time  conies  that  you  will 
die,  you  will  look  just  the  same  as  you  do  now.  You 
will  weigh  just  the  same.  The  eyes  and  the  ears  and 
the  nose  and  the  head  and  the  arms  and  the  legs  will 
all  be  there;  but  you  will  be  unable  to  do  any  of 
those  things  that  you  now  do  when  living,  After 
a  while,  after  this  vital  power  has  left  you  for  a  time, 
your  body  will   commence    to    decay.     Now,  what  does 


188  HYGIENE. 

that  mean  ?  Simply  this :  that  the  particles  of  matter 
which  have  been  put  together  to  form  your  body  are 
now  separating,  to  be  spread  throughout  nature,  and  to 
form  parts  of  other  bodies.  Strange  as  it  may  seem  to 
you,  a  part  of  the  very  matter  that  is  forming  your 
body  to-day,  was  yesterday  a  part  of  a  cow,  if  you 
please.  If,  for  instance,  you  have  eaten  some  beefsteak 
for  breakfast  to-day,  it  has  been  cut  from  a  cow;  now 
when  you  eat  it,  it  becomes  part  of  your  body,  and 
after  having  served  its  purpose  in  your  body,  it  is  dis- 
charged therefrom,  to  become  part  of  some  other  vege-- 
table  or  animal.  I  think  you  probably  will  understand 
from  what  I  have  said  what  I  mean  when  I  say  that 
matter  is  indestructible,  and  that  life,  be  it  the  life  of 
a  man  or  of  a  cow  or  of  a  vegetable,  is  simply  the 
result  of  the  coming  together  and  the  separation  of  par- 
ticles of  matter. 

Of  course  now  you  will  understand  that  we  start 
out  with  the  fundamental  idea  of  Almighty  God  being 
tliH  author  of  all  life.  We  are  not  for  an  instant  taking 
a  materialistic  view  of  life,  in  the  sense  in  which  those 
who  do  not  believe  in  God  view  it.  No  man  has  ever 
yet  been  able  to  make  another  man.  No  man  has 
ever  yet  been  able  to  make  even  a  potato,  or  a  blade 
<>!'  grass.  No  man  can  ever  originate  life.  I  am  simply 
endeavoring  to  make  you  understand  as  I  do  the  work- 
ing of  the  laws  of  nature  that  have  been  ordained  and 
established  by  Almighty  God.  Now  the  question  that 
I  ask,  and  that  I  have  been  trying  to  make  you  under- 
stand by    these   remarks,   is,  whether  it   is  possible   for 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATION    OF   HYGIENE.  189 

us  to  live  forever,  if  we  would  so  obey  the  laws  of 
nature  that  there  would  be  no  disease  in  the  world? 
and  I  answer  this,  no;  because,  as  I  have  explained  to 
you,  it  is  the  inevitable  law  of  nature  that  every  living 
thing  must  die,  sooner  or  later.  But  if  we  were  to 
strictly  obey  the  laws  of  nature  we  would  not  die,  as 
most  persons  now  do,  of  disease ;  but  having  reached 
an  age  at  which  our  vital  power  would  be  exhausted, 
we  would  simply,  as  it  were,  sink  to  sleep  and  wake 
no  more.  In  reality,  each  night  when  you  go  to  sleep 
you  are,  in  a  certain  sense  of  the  word,  dead.  Your 
heart  continues  to  beat,  you  breathe,  but  you  are  utterly 
unconscious  of  the  fact  that  you  are  alive.  So  far  as 
you  yourself  are  concerned  you  are  really  dead  when 
you  are  asleep.  You  do  not  know  that  you  are  alive. 
You  do  not  perform  any  of  the  conscious  acts  of 
living;  and  if  you  were  in  reality  to  die  while  asleep 
you  would  never  know  anything  about  it.  The  person 
who  dies  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  nature  really 
goes  to  sleep  and  does  not  wake  up  again.  For  exam- 
ple :  A  short  time  ago  I  had  under  my  care  a  once  vigor- 
ous, strong,  hearty  and  healthy  Irish  lady.  She  was 
eighty-live  years  of  age ;  and  when  I  was  called  to  see 
her  there  was  nothing  the  matter  with  her  except 
general  weakness.  She  had  no  disease ;  she  was  not  com- 
plaining of  any  suffering  or  any  pain,  but  said  she  just 
felt  weak.  After  attending  her  for  about  a  week,  dur- 
ing which  time  she  was  daily  getting  weaker,  when  I 
went  one  morning  I  found  her  lying  in  bed  unconscious. 
Her  heart  was  beating  slowly ;  she  was  breathing  slowly. 


190  HYGIENE. 

She  made  no  sign  showing  that  she  wanted  to  eat  or 
drink,  but  if  food  was  put  to  her  mouth,  or  drink  was 
given  to  her,  she  would  swallow  it.  And  so  she  went 
along  for  four  or  live  days,  each  day  weaker  than 
the  day  before,  until  it  required  a  careful  exami- 
nation to  see  that  she  was  breathing  at  all,  or  that  her 
heart  was  beating  at  all ;  and  finally  after  a  short  time 
she  quietly  stopped  breathing,  her  heart  stopped  beat- 
ing, and  she  died. 

In  a  case  of  this  kind,  the  laws  of  nature  had 
been  strictly  complied  with.  This  old  lady  had  lived 
until  all  of  the  vital  force  born  with  her  had  become 
exhausted,  and   then  she  simply  ceased  to  live. 

What,  then,  do  I  mean  by  vital  force?  Well,  I 
think  I  have  already  told  you  that  by  vital  force  I 
mean  that  power  to  live  that  is  born  with  each  and 
every  one  of  us  in  accordance  with  the  design  of  the 
Almighty.  Vital  force  means  the  power  to  breathe, 
to  eat,  to  think,  to  see,  to  hear,  to  move,  to  do  all 
those  things  that  constitute  life.  A  very  important 
question  comes  in  just  here.  Is  the  same  amount  of 
vital  force  born  with  each  and  every  person ;  or,  in 
other  words,  if  we  Avere  all  of  us  to  obey  the  laws 
of  nature  strictly,  would  we  all  live  equally  long? 
No.  You  know  that  some  children  will  inherit  from 
their  parents  a  certain  sum  of  money.  Other  children 
will  inherit  more;  while  others,  again,  will  receive 
still  less.  Just  as  it  is  with  money,  so  it  is  with 
this  vital  force.  Some  of  us  will  inherit  from  our 
parents   a  certain   amount    of    vital    force;    others   will 


GENERAL   CONSIDERATION   OF   HYGIENE.  191 

inherit  more,  still  others,  less.  What  do  I  mean 
when  I  say  that  you  will  inherit  a  certain  amount  of 
vital  force  from  your  parents  ?  By  this  expression  I 
mean  to  convey  the  idea  that,  other  things  being  equal, 
as  the  parent  is  so  will  the  child  be;  that  is  to  say, 
that  if  your  father  and  mother  are  strong,  hearty, 
healthy  persons,  who  have  obeyed  strictly  the  laws  of 
nature,  that  they  will  transmit  to  you  a  greater  amount 
of  vital  force  than  will  be  the  case  if  they  have  lived 
lives  calculated  to  destroy  or  weaken  their  health. 

For  example,  in  order  that  this  matter  may  be  made 
very  clear  to  you,  let  us  suppose  that  the  father  of 
some  particular  boy  or  girl  in  this  room  has  received 
from  his  father  one  hundred  thousand  dollars.  Let  us 
suprjose  that  he  has  invested  this  money  so  that  it  will 
bring  him  in  an  income  of  five  thousand  dollars  a  year. 
Let  us  suppose  that  he  has  so  lived  throughout  his  life 
that  he  has  never  spent  more  than  five  thousand  dollars 
in  any  one  year.  When  he  comes  to  die,  he  will  leave 
to  this  boy  the  full  sum  of  one  hundred  thousand  dol- 
lars that  he  has  received  from  his  father.  But  now,  on 
the  other  hand,  let  us  suppose  that  he  has  not  been 
satisfied  with  spending  only  five  thousand  dollars,  but 
that  each  year  of  his  life  he  has  taken  two  thousand 
dollars  from  the  principal,  and  that  he  has  lived  in  this 
way  for  thirty  years.  A  little  calculation  will  show 
you  that  two  thousand  dollars  taken  from  the  principal 
for  thirty  years  amounts  to  sixty  thousand  dollars,  so 
that  he  will  in  that  time  have  spent  sixty  thousand 
dollars  of  the  hundred   thousand   dollars  received   from 


102  HYGIENE. 

liis  father;  and  as  a  natural  consequence,  lie  will  only 
be  able  to  leave  to  this  particular  boy  the  sum  of  forty 
thousand  dollars. 

Well,  now,  exactly  the  same  is  the  case  with  this 
vital  power.  If  I  inherit  a  certain  amount  of  vital 
power  from  my  parents,  and  if  I  take  care  of  this  force, 
if  I  live  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  nature,  I  may 
be  able  to  transmit  to  my  children  just  that  same 
amount  of  vital  force  that  I  have  received  from  my 
parents.  But  if  I  live  riotously,  if  I  neglect  all  the 
laws  of  nature  or  of  health,  if  I  take  no  care  of  myself 
whatsoever,  I  am  spending  my  vital  force  just  as  I 
might  spend  the  money  I  would  inherit,  and  I  will  be 
able  to  transmit  to  my  children  no  more  than  possibly 
one-half  or,  maybe,  one-fourth  only  of  the  amount  of 
vital  force  that  I  have  received  from  my  parents. 

A  thought  occurs  to  me  that  will  illustrate  this  idea 
admirably  well,  and  it  is  an  extremely  significant  and 
suggestive  thought  for  the  people  of  this  country.  If 
you  will  look  about  among  your  friends  and  acquaint- 
ances, you  will  be  struck,  as  I  have  been,  by  this  won- 
derfully important  circumstance.  You  will  see  families 
wherein  the  father  and  mother  have  belonged,  possibly, 
to  that  hard-working,  plain-living  Irish  race,  men  and 
women  who  have  come  to  this  country  from  Ireland 
(and  also  from  other  countries,  but  I  have  noticed  it 
particularly  in  connection  with  the  Irish  men  and 
women  who  have  come  to  this  country  as  poor  boys 
and  girls)  without  a  dollar,  but  with  a  magnificent 
stock  of    vigorous    health,    ambition,   pluck   and   deter- 


GENERAL    CONSIDERATION   OF   HYGIENE.  193 

mination  to  make  their  way  in  the  world ;  men  and 
women  who  have  succeeded,  from  a  worldly  point  of 
view,  in  accumulating  money  and  securing  position,  and 
who  have  lived  to  the  age,  maybe,  of  eighty,  eighty- 
five,  sometimes  even  ninety  years,  who  have  large  fami- 
lies, and  yet,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  nearly  all,  if 
not  all,  of  the  children  have  died  even  before  their 
parents. 

Now,  what  does  this  mean  ?  To  my  way  of  think- 
ing, it  means  unquestionably  that  these  strong,  healthy 
parents,  in  their  ambition  for  success,  have  so  used  up 
their  inheritance  of  vital  force  that  they  have  received 
from  their  sturdy  parents,  that  they  have  had  very  lit- 
tle vital  force  left  to  transmit  to  their  children.  How 
rarely  do  you  ever  find  a  son  or  a  daughter  of  a  man 
who  has  been  eminent  in  any  particular  walk  of  life 
attaining  eminence  in  that  line  in  which  the  father 
has  been  famous. 

What  does  this  mean  ?  To  my  way  of  thinking,  it 
means  that  so  much  of  the  vital  force  of  the  parent 
has  been  expended  in  attaining  the  eminence  that  he 
has  enjoyed,  that  he  has  very  little  of  it  left  to  trans- 
mit to  his  children.  I  think  you  will  now  understand 
what  I  mean  when  I  speak  of  vital  force.  You  will 
understand  what  I  mean  when  I  speak  of  vital  inherit- 
ance. You  will  understand  that  everyone  of  us  derives 
from  his  parents  a  certain  amount  of  vital  force, 
greater  from  those  parents  who  have  obeyed  the  laws 
of  nature,  and  a  lesser  amount  from  those  who  have 
lived   regardless  of  their  health.     Well,  now,  just  here 


194  HYGIENE. 

comes  in  a  question  of  very,  very  great  importance  to 
you.  Suppose  you  have  inherited  from  your  parents 
only  a  small  amount  of  vital  force.  Suppose  your  £>ar- 
ents  have  been  utterly  regardless  of  all  the  laws  of 
health  or  nature,  and  as  a  consequence,  suppose  you  are, 
as  compared  with  your  neighbor,  a  weak,  delicate  per- 
son, are  you  therefore  doomed  to  sickness  and  to  early 
death  ?  As  you  can  readily  understand,  this  is  a  ques- 
tion of  vital  importance  to  you ;  because  if  this  were 
the  case,  if  you  were  necessarily  doomed  to  an  early 
death,  it  would  be  a  very  sad  state  of  affairs  for  you. 
But  fortunately  such  is  not  the  case,  and  here  comes 
in  one  of  the  most  beautiful  aspects  of  the  laws  of 
nature. 

To  illustrate  again :  Let  me  take  two  boys,  and  let 
me  call  one  Tom  and  the  other  Jim.  Now  let  us  sup- 
pose Jim  gets  from  his  father  one  hundred  thousand 
dollars,  and  let  us  suppose  that  Tom  gets  only  fifty 
thousand.  Let  Jim  spend  every  year  besides  his  in- 
come two  thousand  dollars  of  his  principal.  At  the 
end  of  thirty  years  Jim  will  have  spent  sixty  thousand 
dollars  of  his  principal,  and  he  will  only  have  forty 
thousand  dollars  left.  Now  Tom  only  has  fifty  thou- 
sand dollars,  and  he  gets  only  twenty-five  hundred 
dollars  a  year  income  from  it;  but  Tom  spends  only 
two  thousand  dollars  a  year;  each  year  he  saves  five 
hundred,  and  at  the  end  of  thirty  years  he  has  saved 
fifteen  thousand  dollars.  Now,  when  we  add  that  to 
his  original  fifty  thousand  dollars,  we  find  at  the  end 
of   thirty   years   that   Tom,  who  started    out   with   fifty 


GENERAL   CONSIDERATION    OF    HYGIENE.  195 

thousand  dollars  only,  now  lias  sixty- five  thousand 
dollars;  while  Jim,  who  started  out  with  a  hundred 
thousand,  has  now  only  forty.  So  that  the  boy  with 
the  smallest  inheritance  of  money  has  been  able,  by 
carefully  handling  that  money,  to  be  richer  at  the 
end  of  thirty  years  than  the  boy  who  started  out 
with  twice  as  much. 

As  with  the  money,  so  is  it  with  the  vital  force. 
The  boy  who  inherits  a  smaller  amount  of  vital  force 
from  his  parents  may,  by  careful  living,  by  carefully 
watching  his  inheritance  of  vital  force,  outlive  the 
boy  who  has  inherited  a  much  greater  amount.  In 
fact,  not  only  may  he  outlive  the  other  boy,  but  I 
would  assert  it  as  a  fact  that  he  is  much  more  likely 
to  outlive  the  other  boy,  because  the  very  fact  that  he 
is  deficient  in  his  inheritance  of  vital  force  will  be  apt 
to  serve  him  as  a  constant  reminder  of  the  necessity 
of  taking  care  of  himself;  while  the  boy  who  inher- 
its a  large  amount  of  vital  force  will  be  apt  to  pre- 
sume upon  his  strength,  and  will  therefore  neglect 
the  laws  of  nature,  and  will  be  very  apt  to  wreck 
himself  before  he  has  nearly  reached  the  natural  limit 
of  his  vital  inheritance. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

245.  What  do  you  mean  by  hygiene  ? 

246.  Is  disease,  really,  a  punishment  for  sin? 

247.  What  would  be  the  result  of  a  strict  obedience  of  the  laws  of 
nature? 


190  HYGIENE. 

248.  Does  disease  always  follow  disobedience  of  the  laws  of  nature  ? 
24!*.  Can  we  always  avoid  disease? 

250.  What  do  yon  mean  when  you  speak  of  disease  as  a  "  Visitation 
of  Divine  Providence  "  ? 

251.  Has  every  sick  person  been  guilty  of  sin  ? 

252.  Is  it  possible  for  man  to  live  forever  ? 

253.  What  do  you  mean  by  matter  f 

254.  What  becomes  of  the  matter  of  our  bodies  when  we  die? 

255.  Who  is  the  author  of  all  life  ? 

256.  If  we  all  strictly  obeyed  the  laws  of  nature,  how  would  we  die  ? 

257.  Is  sleep  anything  like  death  ? 

258.  What  do  you  mean  by  "  vital  force  "  ? 

259.  Are  we  all  equally  endowed  with  vital  force  ? 

260.  Why  is  it  that  children  so  seldom  equal  their  parents  in  special 
attributes  for  which  the  parents  may  have  been  noted? 

261.  Suppose  your  vital  inheritance  has  been  small,  are  you  neces- 
sarily doomed  to  ill-health  and  early  death  ? 


HEREDITY.  197 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

HEREDITY. 

The  question  that  we  have  been  discussing  is  in 
reality  the  question  of  Heredity,  and  it  is  one  of 
the  utmost  importance,  yet  one  that  is  not  properly 
understood.  In  calculating  the  probable  length  of  an 
individual  life,  insurance  companies  are  accustomed  to 
lay  great  stress  upon  the  length  of  life  of  the  ancestors. 
Again,  in  our  efforts  to  educate  the  people  in  hygiene 
we  encounter  many  persons  who,  while  scorning  the 
idea  of  fatalism,  yet  are  in  reality  fatalists  so  far  as 
the  question  of  health  and  longevity  is  concerned; 
such  x^ersons  will  argue  that  if  an  individual  comes 
of  a  long-lived  ancestry  he  is  likely  to  have  a  long 
life,  and  vice  versa.  Now,  while  I  do  not  dispute 
the  absolute  influence  of  heredity  in  a  state  of  rude 
nature,  and  its  partial  influence  in  a  state  of  artificial 
civilization,  yet  I  think  that  it  receives  more  than 
its  due  share  of  consideration,  and  I  cannot  bet- 
ter demonstrate  the  true  relative  influence  of  heredity 
upon  longevity  than  by  placing  before  you  two  ex- 
treme illustrative  types  in  the  life  histories  of  Tommy 
Thin  and  Sammy  Stout ;  and  I  consider  the  right  under- 
standing of  this  question  of  heredity  so  important  that 
I  must  devote  a  whole  chapter  to  its  consideration. 


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210 


HYGIENE. 


Have  I  overdrawn  the  picture  ?  I  admit  that  I  have, 
for  the  sake  of  illustration,  drawn  for  you  the 
extremes;    but   I    am    quite    sure    that   this    little   life- 


Fr<;.  59. — Chevreul,  at  100  years  of  age. 

sketch  gives  us  the  true  relationship  between  heredity 
and  longevity.  Unquestionably,  heredity  is  a  potent 
factor,  but   if   relied  upon  solely  it  will    fail  us.     Such 


HEREDITY. 


211 


is  the  lesson  taught  us  again  by  the  life  history  of  the 
eminent  French  chemist,  Chevreul,  whom  I  show  you 
as  he  appeared  at  the  age  of  100  years.  It  was  not 
heredity  alone,  nor  was  it  chance,  that  enabled  Chev- 
reul to  remain  in  this  world  in  his  human  shape  for 
103  years.  By  no  means ;  his  long  life  was  one  result 
of  his  inherent  wisdom,  for  all  wise  men  are  sanitarians. 
A  man  of  genius  may  be  erratic,  and  he  generally  is  so; 
but  a  wise  man,  a  man  with  a  well-balanced  mind,  will 
generally  be  found  to  be  thoughtful  of  his  health. 

Is  not  this  truth  forced  upon  us  when  we  look  upon 
the  gradually  ageing  features  of  General  Grant's  great 
Secretary  of  State,   the  late  Hon.   Hamilton  Fish?     And 


Fm.  60. — The  Hon.  Hamilton  Fish,  at  60,  70  and  83  years  of  age. 

as  we  see  him  at  60,  70,  and  83  years  of  age,  are  we  not 
impressed  with  the  natural  and  gradual  manner  in  which 
this  great  man  passed  through  his  part  in  the  drama  of 


212 


iiyoiene. 


life?  And  do  we  not  learn  the  same  lesson  from  the 
features,  at  63  and  at  86,  of  that  eminent  jurist,  David 
Dudley  Field? 


Fig.  61. — David  Dudley  Field,  at  63  and  86  years  of  age. 

Look,  now,  at  the  natural  passage  through  life  of 
that  eminently  natural,  therefore  cheerful,  happy,  con- 
tented, healthy  president  of  one  of  America's  greatest 
railways,  the  Hon.  Chauncey  M.  Depew,  of  New  York. 

So  also  with  Gladstone,  lately  the  virtual  ruler  of 
England  at  84,  and  with  those  two  great  Cardinals  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  Newman  and  Manning,  aged  86 
and  83  respectively  at  the  time  of  death ;  as  with  De 
Lesseps,  the  French  engineer,  at  87,  and  Dr.  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes,  at  84.  From  them,  as  from  the 
life  histories  of  thousands  of  others,  we  learn  the  lesson 
that  what  we  are  wont  to  look  upon  as  great  old  age, 
should  be  the  lot  of  every  human  being  that  is  born.  I 
have  been  showing  you  the  features  of  some  very  old 
men,  and  I  now  show  you  one  more,  in  the  person  of 
Admiral    Sir  Provo  Wallis,  of  the  British  Navy,  as    he 


HEREDITY. 


213 


\V/   V 


AT  2o 


?vr;6 


Fig.  62. — Hon.  Chauncey  M.  Depew. 


214 


HYGIENE. 


Fig.  63.— W.  E.  Gladstone. 


Fig.  65.— Dr.  0.  W.  Holmes. 


FlO.  6  I.     I  ardina]  Manning 


Fig.  66. —  De  Lesseps. 


HEREDITY. 


215 


Fig.  67. — Cardinal  Newman. 


appeared  at  100  years  of  age,  as  though  the  spectacle 
of  a  man  80  or  100  years  old  was  a  great  curiosity.  Well, 
so  it  is,  in  these  days  of  human  degeneracy ;  but  I  would 
beg  of  you  to  remember  that,  according  to  the  laws  of 
nature,  the  attainment  of  100  years  of  healthy  life  should 
not  be  regarded  as  a  passport  to  a  niche  in  a  museum  of 


216 


HYGIENE. 


curiosities,  or  as  making  one  worthy  of  exhibition  at  a 
sanitary  convention,  but   as  a  consummation   of   human 


Fig.  68. 
Admiral  Sir  Provo  Wallis,  of  the  British  Navy,  at  the  age  of  100. 

life  to  which  we  all  are  entitled,  and  the  failure  to  reach 
which  is  due  to  some  fault  of  our  own  or  of  our  ances- 
tors. 


HEREDITY.  217 

QUESTIONS    FOR   REVIEW. 

262.  What  is  heredity  ? 

263.  Can  the  importance  of  heredity  be  overestimated  ? 

264.  Relate  the  relative  influences  of  heredity  and  hygiene  upon 
longevity,  as  illustrated  by  the  life  histories  of  Tommy  Thin  and 
Sammy  Stout. 

265.  Is  it  safe  to  rely  solely  upon  heredity  ? 

266.  "What  lesson  do  we  learn  from  the  life  histories  of  eminent 
men  who  have  lived  to  great  age  ? 

267.  To  what  length  of  life  are  Ave  all  entitled? 


21 S  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

HEREDITARY    DISEASES. 

Before  we  leave  this  subject  of  inheritance,  let  us 
for  a  moment  take  up  the  question  of  hereditary  dis- 
eases; for  this  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance 
in  connection  with  the  study  of  hygiene.  You  are  in 
the  habit  of  hearing  it  always  said  that  consumption  is 
an  hereditary  disease;  where  the  parents  have  had  con- 
sumption the  disease  is  almost  invariably  looked  for  and 
expected  with  the  children.  It  is  almost  accepted  as  an 
inevitable  fact  that  the  children  of  consumptive  pa  rents 
must  themselves  die  of  consumption.  Now  there  never 
was  a  more  erroneous,  or  more  dangerous,  or  more  ter- 
rible conception  of  the  truth  than  this.  Every  disease 
can  be,  and  no  disease  need  be,  hereditary.  Now,  what 
do  I  mean  by  this?  I  mean,  that  if  my  father  has  had 
any  particular  disease — I  do  not  care  whether  it  is  con- 
sumption, or  Bright's  disease  of  the  kidneys,  or  disease 
of  the  liver,  or  disease  of  the  heart  or  of  the  brain,  or 
of  any  part  of  the  body — if  my  father  has  had  any  par- 
ticular disease,  it  is  very  likely  that  a  weakness  of  that 
particular  part  will  be  transmitted  tome;  and  that  if  I 
live  a  life  that  is  calculated  to  favor  the  development 
of  this  disease,  that  the  disease  will  be  very  likely  to 
occur  with  me;    but  that  if  I  lead  a  life  calculated  to 


HEREDITARY   DISEASES.  219 

keep  my  general  health  good,  and  in  a  special  manner 
calculated  to  avoid  the  particular  disease  with  which 
my  father  has  been  affected,  that  this  disease  will  not 
develop  in  me.  Now  do  yon  see  what  I  mean  when  I 
say  that  any  disease  may  be,  and  no  disease  need  be, 
hereditary"? 

This  is  a  question  of  extreme  imx)ortance,  and  it 
cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  you,  because  it 
is  the  tendency  of  the  day  to  believe  that  if  any  dis- 
ease is  prevalent  in  any  particular  family,  that  the 
members  of  that  family  are  inevitably  doomed  to  such 
disease,  and  that  it  is  useless  for  them  to  fight  against 
it.  Now,  from  what  I  have  said,  I  think  you  can  plainly 
see  how  erroneous  this  idea  is.  Suppose,  for  example, 
my  father  and  mother  have  both  died  of  consumption. 
Suppose  all  my  brothers  and  sisters  have  died  of  con- 
sumption. Suppose  that  my  father  and  mother  and  all 
of  my  brothers  and  sisters  have  lived  lives  that  would 
favor  the  development  of  this  disease.  Now,  knowing 
what  I  do  of  hygiene,  knowing  that  there  is  a  tendency 
in  me  to  consumption  because  of  the  family  history, 
suppose  I  go  off  (as  I  would  do  under  these  circum- 
stances) and  live  all  my  life  in  the  open  air;  suppose 
I  never  go  inside  of  a  house  night  or  day;  I  sleep  and 
eat.  and  work  and  play  and  do  everything  in  the  open 
air ;  suppose  I  make  it  a  practice  to  exercise  my  lungs 
in  the  way  that  I  will  tell  you  about  further  on — now 
I  can  be  morally  certain  that  I  will  not  die  of  consump- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  fact  that  so  many  members  of 
my  family  have  so  died. 


220  HYGIENE. 

QUESTIONS  FOR  REVIEW. 

268.  What  is  the  truth  about  the  hereditary  nature  of  disease  ? 

269.  Is  any  disease  necessarily  hereditary? 

270.  Is  not  the  tendency  to  any  and  all  diseases  hereditary  ? 

271.  Can  an  inherited  tendency  to  disease  be  nullified? 


TWO   JOURNEYS   THROUGH    LIFE.  221 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
TWO  JOURNEYS    THROUGH    LIFE. 

Let  us  now  board  a  fast  express  train  on  the 
"  Railroad  of  Life"  and,  starting  from  New  York  City 
on  the  first  day  of  September,  1894,  ready  for  a  jour- 
ney of  100  years,  see  how  many  will  reach  the  age 
that  God  is  willing  that  they  should  attain. 

Let  us  take  with  us  1000  new-born  babies. 

Listen  to  the  station-master  giving  his  final  in- 
structions to  the  conductor,  and  you  will  hear  some- 
thing like  this — "You  are  due  at  this  station  Sep- 
tember 1,  1994,  and  at  all  hazards  your  time  must 
be  made ;  the  welfare  of  your  passengers  must  be  a 
secondary  consideration ;  your  first  and  guiding  motive 
being  that  you  shall  '  make  time.''"  On  the  1st  of 
September,  1994,  the  fast  express,  completing  its  jour- 
ney of  100  years,  creeps  slowly  into  the  station, — 
weather-beaten,  dismantled,  minus  engineer,  firemen, 
conductors  and  brakemen;  nearly  steamless,  and  in  a 
condition  of  general  decay,  very  nearly  akin  to  that 
of  Dr.  Holmes'  famous  "One-Horse  Shay,"  just  ready 
to  dissolve  into  nothingness.  From  this  phantom  train 
we  see  the  grandson  of  the  station-master  of  1894 
assisting  one  solitary,  decrepit  old  man,  three-fourths 
dead,    to   alight,    and   from  him  he  receives  this  report 


222 


HYGIENE. 


r 


R 


VvW 


i'i\'^-" 


TWO   JOURNEYS   THROUGH   LIFE.  223 

of  the  journey  of  100  years:  "Traveling,  as  we  did, 
under  orders  to  ' make  time,'1  regardless  of  the  wel- 
fare of  our  passengers,  before  we  were  one  year  on 
our  journey  we  had  lost  149  of  our  babies,  and 
before  we  were  five  years  out  263  were  missing. 
During  the  next  five  years  we  were  more  fortunate 
and  lost  only  35.  For  the  succeeding  five  years  we 
were  remarkably  fortunate  and  lost  only  18.  But  now 
our  losses  increased  so  that  when  we  had  been  out 
twenty-five  years  our  force  was  reduced  to  634.  In 
the  next  ten  years  we  lost  62 ;  while  at  the  end  of 
45  years  our  original  passenger  list  was  cut  in  two, 
and  we  had  left  of  our  original  1000  babies  only 
500  middle-aged  men.  At  the  close  of  the  55th  year 
we  could  count  but  421,  while  only  309  remained 
at  65,  and  161  at  the  end  of  seventy-five  years. 
When  we  had  been  out  85  years  our  engineer  and 
conductor  were  counted  among  the  missing,  and  only 
38  tottering  old  men  could  be  found  in  all  our  train. 
Five  years  ago,  when  we  had  been  95  years  on  the 
'journey  of  life,'  our  train-hands  were  all  gone;  the 
engine,  nearly  exhausted  and  worn  out,  was  running 
without  guidance  or  control,  and  but  one  poor  old 
fellow,  besides  myself,  was  to  be  seen  in  all  the 
cars.  He  fell  off  some  little  time  after;  and  here  you 
see  me,  the  sole  survivor  of  the  1000  happy  babies 
that  started  from  this  station  100  years  ago  on  the 
"journey  of  life,'  and  /  am  only  one-fourth  alive." 
What  a  doleful  journey ;  yet  it  is  statistically  cor- 
rect,  for  of  every  1000   babies  born    the    proportion  of 


224 


HYGIENE. 


TWO   JOURNEYS   THROUGH   LIFE.  225 

deaths   is   as  stated,  and  only  one   person   out   of  every 
4000  born  reaches  the  age  of  100  years. 

But  now,  from  the  same  station  starts  out  another 
train,  similarly  loaded,  having,  however,  for  its  con- 
ductress the  Goddess  Hygeia.  It  is,  to  a  certain 
extent,  an  experimental  train — that  is  to  say,  sched- 
uled on  scientific  principles,  the  effort  is  to  be  made 
to  demonstrate  practically  that  "time"  can  be  made 
without  sacrificing  the  interests  and  the  welfare  of  the 
passengers.  One  hundred  years  later,  this  same  train, 
smart  and  fresh  and  under  the  control  of  the  same 
officials  with  which  it  started  (now  grown  grizzly 
veterans)  steams  into  the  station  on  time,  and  from 
every  platform  there  alight  hale,  hearty,  vigorous  old 
men  of  100  years.  The  number  of  arrivals  is  not  1000, 
but  it  approaches  very  closely  to  that  figure,  and  as 
we  notice  the  populace  singing  the  praises  of  the  con- 
ductress for  her  wise  management  of  this  long  journey, 
let  us  all  put  on  our  "  thinking  caps"  and  moralize 
upon  the  meaning  of  these  two  journeys. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

272.  Describe  the  fate  of  1000  babies  on  their  journey  through  life 
as  it  is. 

273.  Out  of  every  1000  persons  born,  how  many  reach  the  age  of 
100  years? 

274.  Describe  the  possible  fate  of  1000  babies  if  the  teachings  of 
hygiene  were  universally  obeyed. 

275.  What  is  the  moral  of  these  two  journeys  ? 


226  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER   XIX. 
DISEASE. 

Of  course  you  are  prepared  to  understand  that  dis- 
ease has  caused  the  death  of  most  of  those  who  died  on 
the  first  of  the  two  journeys  just  described.  That  is  to 
say,  that  their  deaths  were  not  natural,  that  they  ought 
not  to  have  died  when  they  did. 

In  order  that  we  may  go  along  smoothly  in  our 
study  of  this  subject,  let  us  now,  for  a  moment,  consider-" 
what  we  mean  by  disease.  The  word  sickness  is,  of 
course,  very  well  understood  by  you,  but  I  doubt  if  .you 
have  ever  reflected  upon  the  full  significance  of  the  word 
"disease.'"  Recall  the  comparison  that  we  have  made 
between  a  human  body  and  a  machine,  remember  the 
different  organs  and  parts,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
particular  duty  to  perform. 

In  the  human  body  in  which  all  of  these  parts  are 
properly  performing  their  duty  we  will  have  a  condition 
of  perfect  health.  But  now  if  one  of  these  organs  or  any 
pari  of  the  body  is  so  deranged  that  it  is  not  able  prop- 
erly to  perform  its  duty,  then  in  reality  we  are  in  the 
condition  that  we  call  disease. 

Reflect  for  a  moment.  If  you  see  a  person  sick  with 
scarlet  fever,  or  with  diphtheria,  or  measles,  or  typhoid 
fever,  you  have  always  been  accustomed  to  consider  such 
a  person  sick.     It  is  easy  enough  for  you  to    recognize 


DISEASE.  227 

sickness  when  it  is  of  sncli  a  nature  as  to  confine  the  sick 
person  to  bed.  But  the  idea  that  I  would  have  you  now 
understand  is,  that  any  departure  from  the  normal  healthy 
condition  of  the  human  body  really  constitutes  what  we 
will  call  disease,  even  though  the  person  so  diseased  may 
not  seem  to  the  eye  of  an  observer  to  be  in  any  way 
sick.  In  my  "  Catechism  of  Hygiene"  I  have  divided  dis- 
ease into  two  grand  divisions :  acute  and  chronic.  It  is 
very  important  that  you  should  understand  what  this 
division  means.  I  have  already  told  you,  in  the  book 
referred  to,  that  by  an  acute  disease  we  mean  a  disease 
generally  caused  by  the  introduction  of  some  poison  from 
without  into  the  body.  But  in  this  amplification  of  this 
little  book  we  must  go  farther,  and  define  acute  disease  as 
a  disease  that  is  characterized  usually  by  marked  symp- 
toms, that  has  a  definite  course  to  run,  and  that  must  ter- 
minate either  in  recovery,  in  death,  or  in  the  develop- 
ment of  a  chronic  disease. 

Now,  chronic  disease  means  a  slow,  insidious,  gradually- 
developing  condition,  whereby  some  organ  or  part  is  so 
altered  in  its  composition  that  it  is  no  longer  able  to  ful- 
fill properly  its  duty  in  the  body.  It  is  very  important 
that  you  should  bear  in  mind  the  distinction  between 
acute  and  chronic  disease,  because,  while  of  course  all 
disease,  as  we  have  already  said,  is  due  to  some  infringe- 
ment of  the  laws  of  nature,  and  while  it  is  the  prov- 
ince of  hygiene  to  protect  us  from  all  disease,  yet  par- 
ticularly may  it  be  said  that  it  is  in  the  power  of  the 
individual  to  protect  himself  from  chronic  disease  in  an 
especial  manner. 


228  HYGIENE. 

Our  own  individual  efforts  may  not  always  suffice  to 
save  us  from  the  causes  of  acute  disease,  because  since 
the  majority  of  acute  diseases  are  caused  by  the  pres- 
ence in  the  air  that  we  breathe  or  the  food  that  we 
eat  or  the  water  that  we  drink  of  disease  germs,  it 
is  very  often  an  impossibility,  practically  speaking,  to 
avoid  taking  into  our  systems  the  causes  of  acute 
disease.  But  with  chronic  disease  the  case  is  very 
different.  It  is  almost  always  the  case  that  chronic 
disease  is  due  to  faulty  methods  of  life  on  the  part 
of  the  individual  himself.  Chronic  disease  of  the 
liver  or  of  the  lungs  or  of  the  kidneys,  implies  a. 
change  in  the  structure  of  these  organs,  in  place  of 
the  normal  healthy  tissue  of  these  parts.  We  will 
find  in  anyone  who  is  suffering  from  chronic  disease, 
therefore,  a  tissue  that  is  not  able  properly  to  fulfill 
the  duty  of  these  organs;  and  the  change  from  the 
normal  to  the  abnormal  structure  is  in  most  cases  due 
to  faulty  methods  of  life,  although,  of  course,  this 
is  not  always   so. 

Therefore,  you  see  that  while  hygiene  really  exerts 
an  influence  in  the  prevention  of  all  kinds  of  disease, 
it  is  more  especially  in  the  case  of  chronic  disease  that 
the  efforts  of  the  individual  himself  will  be  most 
effective.  But  chronic  disease,  of  course,  does  not 
always  begin  as  a  chronic  affection.  Very  often  an 
acute  disease  if  neglected  will  result  in  a  chronic 
incurable  affection  of  the  part.  Just  here  comes  in  a 
very  important  point.  Acute  disease,  I  have  already 
told    you,    is   fatal   only   in   about   a   proportion   of   one 


DISEASE.  229 

out  of  every  five.  That  is  to  say,  for  every  five 
persons  sick  witli  acute  disease  only  one  will  die ; 
whereas  with  chronic  disease  it  is  all  the  time  slowly 
tending  towards  a  fatal  termination.  The  point  that  I 
want  to  call  your  attention  to  particularly  in  this 
connection  is  that  a  person  afflicted  with  chronic  dis- 
ease may  often,  though  that  disease  may  be  incurable, 
by  proper  methods  of  life  so  hold  the  disease  in  check 
that  he  may  live  nearly  as  long  with  the  disease  .as 
without  it.  To  make  this  point  clear  to  you,  I  would 
compare  a  person  suffering  from  chronic  disease  to  a 
ship  at  sea  that  has  sprung  a  leak,  but  whose  pumps 
are  in  good  working  order.  So  long  as  this  leaking 
ship  encounters  only  fair  weather,  and  so  long  as  the 
crew  are  able  to  work  at  the  pumps,  she  will  sail 
along  as  well  as  though  she  were  perfectly  sound.  But 
let  her  encounter  a  heavy  gale,  or  let  the  pumps  fail 
to  work  properly,  and  she  will  soon  founder.  So,  pre- 
cisely, is  it  with  the  victim  of  chronic  disease.  Let 
us  suppose,  for  example,  that  the  chronic  disease  be 
that  of  the  kidneys.  Let  us  suppose  that  one  has 
chronic  Bright's  disease  of  the  kidneys.  So  long  as 
such  person  lives  in  such  a  way  as  to  put  the  least 
possible  amount  of  work  upon  these  organs,  so  long 
will  he  live  in  comparative  health,  able  to  enjoy  himself 
and  to  remain  in  this  world  as  long  as  though  his 
kidneys  were  perfectly  sound.  But  let  such  a  person 
neglect  the  laws  of  health,  let  him  lead  a  reckless 
life,  regardless  of  the  weak  point  in  his  system,  and 
he   will  very  soon  succumb  to   the   disease. 


230  HYGIENE. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

276.  What  is  the   cause  of  the  death  of  most   babies   and  young 
persons? 

277.  What  do  you  mean  by  disease  ? 

278.  Into  what  two  grand  divisions  do  you  divide  disease,  and  what 
do  they  mean  ? 

279.  Can  our  own  efforts  save  us  from  acute  disease  ? 

280.  What  is  the  principal  cause  of  chronic  disease  ? 

281.  In  about  what  proportion  is  acute  disease  fatal? 

282.  To  what  would  you  compare  the  victim  of  chronic  disease  ? 


DISEASE   GEKMS.  231 


CHAPTER  XX. 

DISEASE   GERMS. 

Now  we  have  made  a  still  further  sub -division  of 
acute  diseases  into  contagious  and  non-contagious.  You 
already  know  that  by  this  we  mean  that  some  diseases 
are  capable  of  transmission  from  one  person  to  another, 
and  these  we  call  contagious  diseases ;  while  others  are 
not  capable  of  such  transmission,  and  these  we  will  call 
non-contagious  diseases.  Now  read  attentively,  because 
in  connection  with  this  subject  of  contagious  diseases 
I  am  going  to  tell  you  something  extremely  interesting. 
According  to  the  scientific  doctrines  of  the  day,  all  con- 
tagious diseases  are  caused  by  the  entrance  into  the 
body  of  extremely  small  organisms,  which  we  will  call 
germs.  You  have  probably  all  heard  more  or  less  about 
disease  germs ;  but  now  I  want  to  give  you  a  clear, 
intelligent  understanding  of  what  they  are.  A .  disease 
germ  is  a  little  bit  of  a  vegetable,  just  as  much  of  a 
vegetable  as  is  a  potato,  or  a  cabbage,  or  a  pea,  or  a 
bean;  but  so  extremely  small  that  you  could  place 
fully  six  hundred  millions  of  them  upon  a  space  the 
size  of  the  head  of  a  pin;  and  capable  of  such  rapid 
multiplication  that,  if  not  otherwise  utilized,  they  would 
in  a  few  days'  time  fill  the  oceans  of  the  world.  Now 
this  seems   very  startling,  but   there   is   no  occasion  for 


232  HYGIENE. 

alarm  whatsoever.  These  germs  are  subject  to,  practi- 
cally speaking,  the  same  laws  that  govern  all  the  rest 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  When  they  enter  the  human 
body  they  grow  and  multiply  until  they  have  attained 
sufficient  numbers  and  power  to  cause  a  particular  dis- 
ease. They  then  discharge  from  themselves  a  poison, 
and  it  is  this  poison  that  is  the  cause  of  the  disease. 
There  is  a  particular  germ  for  each  particular  disease. 
There  is  a  sj)ecial  germ  for  diphtheria,  and  it  can  pro- 
duce no  other  disease* but  diphtheria;  a  s})ecial  germ  for 
typhoid  fever,  a  special  germ  for  measles,  a  special 
germ  for  scarlet  fever,  a  special  germ  for  smallpox,  a 
special  germ  for  cholera,  and  so  on  through  the  whole 
list  of  contagious  diseases ;  and  the  germ  of  one  par- 
ticular disease  can  cause  only  that  particular  disease 
and  no  other.  If  you  plant  in  the  ground  a  grain  of 
corn,  it  will  produce  corn,  and  nothing  else.  A  pea 
will  produce  peas,  and  nothing  else.  So  is  it  with  a 
disease  germ.  Now  if  these  germs  are  so  small,  and  if 
they  multiply  so  rapidly,  it  is  very  evident  that  they 
must  be  everywhere,  and  you  must  wonder  why  we  are 
not  all  of  us  all  the  time  taking  these  germs  into  our 
bodies.  I  answer  you,  yes,,  undoubtedly  we  are  all 
constantly  taking  them  in.  Then  why  do  we  not,  all 
of  us,  have  some  of  the  contagious  diseases  caused  by 
these  germs?  Now  suppose  you  were  to  take  a  grain 
of  corn  and  lay  it  on  the  floor  of  a  school-room,  and  go 
away,  and  come  back  in  a  hundred  years.  You  would 
find  that  grain  of  corn  just  as  you  had  left  it.  In  fact, 
there  have  been   taken  from  the  tombs  of  Egypt  grains 


DISEASE   GERMS. 


233 


Various  Forms  of  Germs  Supposed  to  Cause  Diseases. 
{Copied  from  Dr.  Carl  Friedlcmder's  "Manual  of 
Microscop leal  Technology. ' ' )     Magn  ified. 


Pyjoemia. 


Relopsing  Fever. 


Pneumonia 


Consumption. 


Anthrax 

MALIGN  AN  T  PUS  TUL  £ . 


Erysipelas , 


tm—BBmas* 


Typhoid  Fever. 


Saliva  Bacil/i. 


Asiatic  Cholera. 


Fig.  71. 


234  HYGIENE. 

of  corn  that  were  buried  there  three  thousand  years  ago, 
with  the  mummies,  and  when  brought  to  light  they 
were  in  the  condition  precisely  in  which  they  were 
when  placed  in  the  grave.  And  these  very  same  grains 
of  corn,  three  thousand  years  old,  have  been  planted  in 
the  ground,  and  have  produced  abundant  crops  of  corn. 
If  you  take  your  grain  of  corn  from  the  floor  and  put 
it  into  suitable  soil,  you  will  have  an  innumerable  num- 
ber of  grains  of  corn  produced  from  this  one.  So  is  it 
with  the  disease  germs.  I  am  fond  of  calling  these  germs 
seeds,  because  it  makes  their  functions,  or  their  duty,  if 
you  please,  clearer  to  the  lay  mind. 

Now,  just  as  we  require  that  the  grain  of  corn  shall 
be  planted  in  suitable  soil  in  order  that  we  may  have  a 
harvest  of  corn,  so  precisely  do  we  require  that  the 
seeds  of  disease  shall  be  planted  in  a  suitable  soil  that 
we  may  have  a  crop  of  disease. 

You  can  probably  anticipate  the  idea  that  I  have 
in  mind,  and  that  I  am  now  about  to  express  to  you. 
Two  conditions  are  necessary  in  order  that  acute  con- 
tagious disease  may  occur :  First,  we  must  have  a  germ 
or  seed;  secondly,  that  seed  must  be  planted  in  a 
body  that  will  x>resent  a  soil  suitable  for  its  develop- 
ment. Now  you  can  understand  why  it  is  that  while 
we  are  all  of  us  all  the  time  taking  the  seeds  of 
disease  into  our  bodies  so  comparatively  few  of  us 
contract  disease.  Well,  now,  what  is  this  particular 
condition  of  the  body  that  makes  it  a  suitable  soil  for 
the  development  of  the  seed  of  disease  ?  That  is  one 
of    the    questions    urjon   which    scientific  men  are  now 


DISEASE   GERMS.  235 

at  work,  but  which  has  not  yet  been  distinctly  settled. 
However,  I  will  tell  you  of  the  beautiful  theory  that 
has  been  advanced  by  Metschnikoff,  who  is  the  chief 
assistant  of  the  famous  Pasteur  of  Paris,  and  which 
he  calls  phagocytosis,  and  by  which  he  thinks  that  he 
can  account  for  the  immunity  that  is  possessed  by 
many  persons  against  germ  diseases.  He  reminds  us 
that  in  the  human  body  there  are  a  large  number  of 
white  cells,  or  little  bodies  that  are  only  about  1-1200 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  which  we  have  already 
studied  as  the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood.  For  a 
long  time,  and  even  to  the  present  day,  the  exact 
function  or  duty  of  these  little  bodies  has  not  been 
clearly  understood.  They  are  found  in  the  blood,  they 
flow  along  in  the  circulation,  but  just  exactly  what 
they  have  to  do,  we  do  not  surely  know.  JNow  Met- 
schnikoff likens  these  little  white  cells  to  soldiers 
who  are  defending  a  besieged  citadel.  When,  accord- 
ing to  his  theory,  disease  germs  enter  the  body,  they 
are  set  upon  by  these  white  cells,  and  a  fierce  con- 
flict takes  place.  If  the  white  cells  are  victorious, 
the  disease  germs  are  by  them  destroyed,  and  not 
only  destroyed,  but  consumed,  eaten  up;  and  the  per- 
son does  not  have  the  disease.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  germs  are  victorious  over  the  white  cells, 
they  set  to  work  to  produce  the  particular  disease  of 
which  they  may  be  the  cause.  This  theory,  while  it 
has  not  yet  been  universally  accepted,  is  probably 
more  generally  believed  in  than  any  other;  and  the 
practical   lesson   that   it   teaches   us  is   just   that  which, 


236  HYGIENE. 

empirically,  Ave  already  knew ;  namely,  that  the  best 
way  to  resist  the  inroads  of  disease  germs  is  so  to 
live  that  the  whole  body  will  be  in  the  best  possible 
physical  condition.  These  little  white  cells,  small  as 
they  are,  are  really  part  and  parcel  of  the  body,  just 
as  much  as  any  other  part  of  the  body,  and  if  the 
whole  body  be  in  good  condition  these  little  white 
cells  will  partake  of  the  general  vigor,  and  will  there- 
fore be  the  better  able  to  become  victorious  in  their 
conflict  with  the  germs  of  disease. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

283.  What  do  you  mean  by  contagious  and  non-contagious  diseases  ? 

284.  What  is  the  cause  of  contagious  diseases  ? 

285.  What  is  a  disease  germ  ?  describe  their  peculiarities. 

286.  To  what  laws  are  disease  germs  subject  ? 

287.  Is  there  but  one  germ  for  all  diseases  ? 

288.  Is  the  germ  itself  the  cause  of  disease? 

289.  Give  a  familiar  illustration  of  the  conditions  necessary  for  the 
development  of  contagious  diseases  ;  the  seed  and  the  soil. 

290.  Are  disease  germs  everywhere  present  ? 

291.  How  do  you  explain  the  immunity  of  so  many  persons? 

292.  What  is  phagocytosis,  and  does  it  explain  immunity  ? 


CONTAGION.  237 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

CONTAGION. 

Understanding  as  you  now  do  how  it  is  that  these 
germ  or  contagious  diseases  are  produced  in  the 
human  body,  you  can  understand  very  clearly  how  it 
is  that  they  are  conveyed  from  one  person  to  another. 
The  body  of  a  person  sick  with  a  germ  disease  is,  in 
reality,  the  laboratory  in  which  these  germs  are  being 
continually  born,  where  they  are  continually  growing, 
and  from  which  they  are  being  all  the  time  given 
off,  and  from  which  they  can  readily  pass  through  the 
medium  of  the  atmosphere,  or  of  food  or  drink,  into 
the  body  of  another.  Just  here  I  will  tell  you  of  an 
extremely  striking  illustration  of  the  power  of  disease 
germs  to  pass  from  one  sick  to  those  that  are  well. 
A  few  years  ago,  out  in  a  small  town  in  Ohio,  a 
physician  was  attending  a  case  of  diphtheria.  He  was 
one  of  those  men  who  ridiculed  the  idea  of  disease 
germs,  and  thought  it  all  nonsense  to  believe  that  it 
was  possible  for  these  germs  to  pass  from  one  to 
another.  He  scraped  a  little  bit  of  the  membrane  from 
the  throat  of  his  patient,  and  took  it  home  to  examine 
under  the  microscope.  His  children,  like  all  other 
children,  always  crowded  about  him  whenever  he  was 
using    the     microscope,     begging     permission     to    look 


238  HYGIENE. 

through  it.  He  allowed  them  to  do  so,  and  in  less 
than  three  weeks  time  all  of  his  children  were  dead 
with  diphtheria.  This  man  now  believes  in  the  germ 
theory  of  disease. 

I  imagine  that  you  have  a  pretty  clear  idea  of 
what  we  mean  when  we  speak  of  acute  contagious 
disease.  You  understand  that  all  acute  contagious 
diseases  are  caused  by  the  entrance  into  the  system 
of  these  little  germs  or  vegetable  growths  about  which 
we  have  been  telling  you.  Now  what  do  we  mean 
by  an  acute  non-contagious  disease?  By  an  acute  non- 
contagious disease,  we  mean  a  disease  that  is  not 
caused  by  the  entrance  of  germs  into  the  system,  but 
that  is  produced  by  some  agency  that  will  cause  a 
temporary  departure  from  the  normal  condition  of  the 
system,  such,  for  example,  as  diseases  that  are  caused 
by  excessive  cold  or  by  excessive  heat,  or  by  indis- 
cretions in  eating,  and  the  like. 

Now,  then,  we  come  for  an  instant  to  recall  what 
we  mean  when  we  speak  of  a  chronic  disease,  which 
you  will  remember  is  a  disease  characterized  by  such  a 
change  in  the  tissue  or  part  affected  that  it  is  not 
longer  able  to  perform  properly  and  thoroughly  its 
duty  in  the  body.  And  you  must  understand  that  such 
changes  in  the  tissues  of  these  parts  or  organs  is  due 
to  some  unnatural  agencies,  although  we  may  not 
always  be  able  to  trace  the  connection  nor  to  avoid  the 
cause.  Some  inherited  defect,  some  fault  of  our  own 
or  of  our  neighbor  will  be  at  the  bottom  of  these 
changes.     For   it  was   originally   intended   by  Almighty 


CONTAGION.  239 

God  that  the  structure  of  these  organs  should  remain 
all  through  life  the  same,  and  that  they  should  finally 
wear  out  in  the  performance  of  duty,  and  such  would 
have  been  the  case  had  our  first  mother  Eve  only 
turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  devil  in  the  garden  of  Eden. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

293.  What  is  the  body  of  a  person  sick  with  a  germ  disease? 

294.  How  can  these  germs  pass  from  one  to  another  ?  give  some 
illustrations. 

295.  What  do  you  mean  by  acute  non-contagious  disease? 

296.  What  do  you  mean  by  chronic  disease? 

297.  What  was  the  design  of  God  in  reference  to  our  vital  organs  ? 


240  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

THE   AVOIDANCE  OF   CONTAGIOUS  DISEASES. 
Isolation  and  Disinfection. 

Now,  understanding  as  you  do  what  we  mean 
by  acute  contagious  diseases,  a  most  important  ques- 
tion comes  up  as  to  what  is  the  best  way  to  avoid 
such  diseases.  If  you  want  to  avoid  having  a  field  of 
corn,  the  best  way  will  be  not  to  plant  the  corn. 
So,  therefore,  if  you  want  to  avoid  having  some  germ 
disease,  the  best  way  will  be  to  avoid  planting  the 
germs.  But  suppose  the  birds  of  the  air  are  all  pro- 
vided with  grains  of  corn,  and  that  they  are  con- 
tinually flying  over  your  field  and  dropping  a  grain 
here  and  there.  It  will  be  utterly  impossible  for  you 
to  prevent  the  corn  from  growing  unless  you  can  in 
some  way  either  render  the  soil  unsuitable  for  its 
growth,  or  you  can  keep  the  birds  away,  or  you  can 
so  destroy  the  vitality  of  the  grain  of  corn  that  even 
when  it  is  planted  in  the  ground  it  will  not  be  able 
to  grow.  Now,  then,  practically  the  same  measures 
that  you  would  take  to  avoid  having  a  field  of  corn, 
would  be  the  same  means  that  you  would  resort  to  to 
avoid  having  a  field  of  disease. 

There  are  two  words  that  I  am  particularly  anxious 
to   impress    upon    your    minds,    two    words    that  form 


THE   AVOIDANCE    OF   CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES.  241 

the  foundation  stone  of  all  effort  looking  towards  the 
prevention  of  germ  diseases.  These  two  words  are 
"isolation"'''  and  "disinfection.''''  If  you  can  keep 
the  birds  with  the  grains  of  corn  away  from  your 
field,  you  are  isolating  them.  If  you  destroy  the 
vitality  of  the  grain  of  corn,  so  that  it  cannot  grow 
in  the  field,  you  are  disinfecting  it.  Now  it  must  be 
evident  to  you  that  if  you  keep  yourself  away  from 
the  germs  of  disease,  and  the  germs  of  disease  away 
from  you,  that  it  will  be  utterly  impossible  for  you 
to  get  any  particular  disease;  and  this  is  what  isola- 
tion means.  It  means  keeping  the  well  away  from 
the  sick,  and  the  sick  away  from  the  well.  Equally 
clear  must  it  be  to  you  that  if  you  can  succeed  in 
destroying  the  vitality  of  these  disease  germs,  that  it 
will  be  utterly  impossible  for  "them  to  produce  the  dis- 
ease; and  this  is  what  disinfection  means,  to  destroy 
the  life  of  the  disease  germ.  These  two  words,  "isola- 
tion" and  "disinfection,"  with  all  that  they  mean, 
with  all  the  ramification  of  thought  that  they  suggest, 
really  constitute  the  essence  of  the  prevention  of  con- 
tagious diseases. 

But  are  these  little  bits  of  germs  alive?  you  will  ask 
me.  Just  every  bit  as  much  alive  as  you  yourself. 
They  possess  every  attribute  of  life.  They  can  move. 
They  are  most  potent  actors  in  the  causation  of  disease. 
They  are  capable  of  producing  innumerable  quantities  of 
little  bodies  like  unto  themselves,  and  equally  potent 
in  the  production  of  disease.  Indeed,  they  are  very 
much  alive,  and   it    is    only   as   living   bodies  that  they 


242  HYGIENE. 

are  capable  of  producing  disease.  If  you  destroy  their 
vitality  they  are  harmless,  so  far  as  the  production  of 
specific  disease  is  concerned.  They  are  organic  bodies, 
and  when  they  are  endowed  with  life  they  are  capable 
of  great  potency.  When  dead  their  specific  power  has 
departed  from  them,  and  they  are  simply  dead  organic 
bodies. 

Well,  now  you  must  plainly  understand  and  antici- 
pate me  when  I  say  that  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant points  that  I  can  impress  upon  you  is  this :  that 
you  should  make  it  a  rule  when  anyone  connected 
with  you,  or  over  whom  you  may  have  control,  is 
sick  with  a  contagious  disease,  to  allow  no  one  to 
approach  close  to  such  a  person,  and  to  take  every 
possible  precaution  that  you  may  to  destroy  the 
germs  of  disease  that*  are  being  continually  given 
forth  from  the  body  of  the  sick  person.  I  would 
impress  upon  you  with  all  the  vehemence  of  which  I 
am  capable,  the  absolute  necessity,  not  only  the  neces- 
sity, I  will  say  the  absolute  humanity,  of  making  it 
obligatory,  if  necessary,  for  the  head  of  every  family 
in  which  there  may  be  a  contagious  disease,  to  place  a 
placard  upon  the  front  door  of  his  house  notifying 
everyone  that  may  approach  that  there  is  danger 
within.  Is  it  asking  too  much  of  the  average  indi- 
vidual thus  to  protect  his  friends  and  neighbors  when 
we  have  the  example  of  the  President  of  the  United 
States  doing  just  this  very  thing?  When  the  grand- 
child of  ex-President  Harrison  was  sick  in  the  White 
House   with  scarlet  fever,    a  i>lacard  was  placed    upon 


THE    AVOIDANCE    OF    CONTAGIOUS    DISEASES. 


243 


the  front  door  of  the  Executive  Mansion  stating  that 
there  was  scarlet  fever  in  the  house.  Suppose  there 
were  half  a  dozen  rattlesnakes  running  around  loose 
in  your  house.  Wouldn't  you  be  at  the  front  door, 
or  outside  of  the  house,  notifying  everyone  that  might 
approach  of  the  danger  within?  Would  it  not  be  your 
first  thought  to  keep  everyone  from  entering  the  house? 
No    one    would    for    an    instant    think    of    any    other 


NOTICE. 


This  house  contains  a  case  of 

DIPHTHERIA. 

When  the  danger  from  contagion  has 
passed  this  card  will  be  removed. 
Per  order, 

Board  of  Health. 


Any  person  removing  this  Card  without 
authority  is  liable  to  a  fine  of  Fifty  Dol- 
lars. 


course.  And  yet  I  can  assure  you  that  a  house  in 
which  there  is  a  case  of  contagious  germ  disease  is 
infinitely  more  dangerous  to  those  who  may  be  allowed 
to  visit  it  than  would  be  a  house  with  five  times  a 
half  dozen  of  rattlesnakes.  One  can  see  the  snakes, 
and  if  he  be  nimble  and  quick,  avoid  them ;  but  how 
utterly    impossible    would     it     be    for    one    to    escape 


244  HYGIENE. 

inhaling,  or  in  some  way  taking  into  his  system,  some 
of  these  germs  that  I  have  told  you  are  so  infinitesi- 
mally  small. 

Now,  then,  you  have  clearly  fixed  the  idea  that 
acute  contagious  diseases  are  caused  by  the  entrance 
into  the  body  of  a  poison  from  without,  and  that 
these  diseases  are  to  be  avoided  by  the  practice  of 
isolation  and  disinfection. 

Since  non-contagious  acute  diseases  and  chronic 
diseases  are  usually  the  result  of  some  willful  or 
unconscious  infraction  of  the  laws  of  nature,  their 
prevention  will  be  best  accomplished  by  an  adherence, 
in  a  general  way,  to  the  teachings  of  this  book,  in 
reference  to  what  should  be  the  proper  performance 
of  the  function  of  each  and  every  part  of  the  body. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

298.  What  is  the  best  way  to  avoid  contagious  disease  ? 

299.  What  do  you  mean  by  isolation  and  disinfection  f 

300.  Are  disease  germs  alive? 

301.  Are  dead  disease  germs  capable  of  causing  disease? 

302.  What   should    you  do  when  anyone  belonging  to  you  is  sick 
with  contagious  disease  ? 

303.  What  is  the  duty  of  the  head  of  a  family  in  which  there  is 
contagious  disease  ? 

304.  How  can  we  avoid  non-contagious,  acute  and  chronic  diseases  ? 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  245 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 
PHYSICAL  EXERCISE. 

The  popular  ignorance,  or  misconception,  of  the 
purpose  of  exercise  is  colossal.  Motion  and  life  are 
synonymous ;  motion  is  characteristic  of  animal  life,  and 
every  phenomena  of  life  implies  motion  and  is  the  result 
of  motion.  The  block  of  marble  or  the  pillar  of  coal  is 
motionless,  but  no  animal  ever  is  without  constant 
motion  from  the  moment  of  birth  to  the  moment  of 
death. 

Motion  means  exercise,  and  exercise  means  motion. 
When  any  muscle  or  part  of  the  body  is  in  motion,  it 
is  being  exercised.  When  you  wink,  the  muscles  of  the 
eyelid  are  in  motion,  and  they  are  being  exercised.  As 
motion  means  exercise,  so  also  does  use  mean  exercise, 
so  that  when  any  muscle  is  in  use  it  is  being  exercised. 
When  you  are  walking,  the  muscles  concerned  in  the 
act  of  walking  are  being    exercised. 

Exercise,  or  the  use  of  any  muscle  or  part,  means 
that  this  part  will  be  developed,  enlarged  and  strength- 
ened thereby ;  inactivity  or  non-use  means  that  the  part 
so  neglected  will  become  weak,  soft,  thin,  and  debili- 
tated. The  arm  of  the  blacksmith  (Fig.  72)  will  make 
clear  to    you   how   excessive    use   will    cause    excessive 


246 


HYGIENE. 


development,  for  you  see  here  the  muscles  of  the  right 
arm  developed  to  a  size  altogether  out  of  proportion  to 
the  rest  of  the  body. 

Wherein  now  lies  the  ignorance  of  the  purposes  of 
exercise  to  which  we  have  referred?  In  not  clearly 
understanding    that    there    are    two   forms   of    exercise : 


Fig.  72. 


1.  Exercise   for    health;     2.  Exercise   for    muscular 
strength. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  strength  :     1 .  Vital  strength ; 

2.  Muscular  strength.      Vital  strength  implies  a  strong, 
healthy   condition   of    the   vital    organs,    of   the    organs 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  247 

necessary  to  life,  such  as  the  heart,  stomach,  brain,  liver, 
kidneys,  lungs,  etc.  ;  muscular  strength  implies  a 
strong,  healthy  condition  of  the  voluntary  muscles, 
which  are  the  agents  or  organs  of  voluntary  motion. 
But  you  may  say  that  there  is  muscular  tissue  in  the 
vital  organs,  and  that  the  heart,  as  the  centre  of  vitality, 
is  a  mass  of  muscles.  True,  you  are  right ;  but  the 
vital  muscles  are  not  voluntary  muscles,  and  when 
we  speak  of  muscular  strength,  as  distinguished 
from  vital  strength,  we  are  referring  to  the  voluntary 
muscles. 

But  do  not  muscular  and  vital  strength  go  hand-in- 
hand  ;  will  not  the  development  of  the  voluntary  mus- 
cles tend  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  vital  organs? 
To  a  certain  point,  yes;  beyond  this  point,  no.  Exer- 
cise of  the  voluntary  muscular  system,  carried  to  the 
extent  of  healthy  development  of  these  muscles,  will  act 
favorably  upon  the  vital  organs,  but  when  this  exercise 
is  carried  so  far  as  to  make  one  a  prodigy  of  muscular 
strength,  it  will  generally  transpire  that  the  vital 
organs  will  suffer  in  consequence. 

There  is  one  grand  universal  law  of  nature  that 
may  be  expressed  in  the  one  word  moderation;  while 
there  is  nothing  so  abhorrent  to  nature  as  excess. 
These  two  truths  hold  good  in  every  department  of 
nature,  and  muscular  exercise  is  no  exception  to  the 
rule.  Moderation  in  all  the  duties  and  functions  of 
life  means  health ;  excess  in  any  one  direction  means 
deterioration  in  some  other  direction. 

Some    pugilists    have,    by    persistent    and    excessive 


248  HYGIENE. 

exercise  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  brought  about  such 
an  extreme  development  of  these  muscles  that  it 
would  be  an  easy  matter  for  any  one  of  them 
to  lift  the  Pope  as  one  would  a  child ;  but  it  is  very 
unlikely  that  any  of  these  men  will  live  to  anything 
like  the  age  that  has  been  attained  by  the  venerable 
Pontiff,  who,  though  not  naturally  robust,  has,  by  a 
system  of  exercise  for  health,  reached  the  age  of 
nearly   85   years. 

While  the  Pope  may  be  accepted  as  a  type  of 
vital  strength,  a  professional  pugilist  may  be  regarded 
as  a  type  of  muscular   strength. 

Let  me  make  this  distinction  still  more  clear  to  you. 
An  old  lady  (75  years  of  age)  recently  broke  her  leg,  and 
was  in  consequence  laid  up  in  bed  for  two  months. 
After  she  bad  been  in  bed  for  about  six  weeks,  I  was 
summoned  hurriedly  one  day,  with  the  report  that  she. 
was  dying.  "  Why  do  you  think  your  mother  is  dying?  " 
I  asked  the  daughter.  "Because  she  is  so  weak;  she 
can  hardly  lift  her  arm  from  the  bed,''  was  the  reply. 
I  examined  the  old  lady's  heart,  and  was  able  to  assure 
her  family  that  there  was  no  danger.  Remember,  this 
good  woman  had  been  confined  to  bed  for  six  weeks; 
her  voluntary  muscles  had  been  used  very  little,  and 
for  the  want  of  use  they  were  weals.;  she  realized  this 
weakness,  and,  not  understanding  what  you  now  do,  she 
was  a  In  lined  thereby.  But  when  I  found  that  her  vital 
strength,  as  evidenced  by  the  strength  of  her  vital  mus- 
cle, the  heart,  was  good.  I  knew  at  once  that  there  was 
no  danger  of  death.     For  a  moment,  look  at  the  other 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE.  249 

side.  It  has  frequently  happened  that  noted  athletes, 
men  whose  muscular  strength  was  very  great,  men  who 
have  entered  into  running  or  rowing  matches,  or  some 
other  form  of  athletic  contest,  seemingly  in  the  most 
robust  and  vigorous  health,  have  fallen  dead  before  the 
contest  was  over. 

And  why?  Because,  while  their  muscular  strength 
was  very  great,  their  vital  strength  was  very  limited. 

Have  I  made  this  distinction  between  the  two  kinds 
of  strength  very  clear  to  you?  I  hope  so,  because  it  is  a 
matter  of  the  most  vital  imxoortance  that  you  should 
clearly  understand  it. 

I  am  a  strong  advocate  of  exercising  for  health,  but 
exercising  for  strength,  as  you  now  understand  it,  is 
not  to  be  recommended. 

In  saying  this,  I  full  well  know  that  I  am  running 
counter  to  the  tendency' of  the  day  in  reference  to  phys- 
ical culture;  but  this  book  has  not  been  written  to  tell 
j)eople  that  black  is  white  because  the  people  want  to 
think  so;  but  throughout  its  pages  the  trntli  will  be 
told,  even  though  the  truth  may  not  be  what  some  of 
my  readers  may  desire. 

However,  this  craze,  this  infatuation  for  excess  ire 
physical  culture,  this  exercising  for  muscular  strength 
at  the  expense  of  the  vital  strength,  has,  I  believe, 
reached  its  zenith ;  its  death-knell  has  been  sounded 
in  the  recent  utterances  of  President  Elliott,  of  Har- 
vard University,  and  it  will  not  be  many  years  before 
healthy  moderation  will  supplant  morbid  excess  in 
physical  exercise. 


250  HYGIENE. 

Some  physicians,  I  know,  will  say  that  these  views 
are  not  correct,  but  it  generally  will  be  found  that 
such  physicians  are  themselves  great  athletes,  so  that 
their  opinion  is  moulded  by  prejudice  or  they  have 
some  interested  motive  for  advocating  excessive  phys- 
ical culture.  The  great  mass  of  the  medical  profes- 
sion will  endorse  my  doctrine,  that  exercise  for  health 
and  healthy  strength,  rather  than  exercise  for  exces- 
sire  muscular  strength,  is  what  we  want  to  teach  the 
rising  generation. 

Unless  intelligently  directed,  exercising  in  gymna-'" 
siums  is  apt  to  prove  dangerous,  because  of  the  spirit  of 
emulation  therein  engendered.  Young  men  go  into  a 
gymnasium  and  see  an  athlete  on  the  bars.  They  try 
to  do  what  they  see  him  doing,  and  the  chances  are 
they  fall  and  break  bones  or  strain  beyond  repair  some 
cord  or  muscle  which  they  have  not  been  accustomed 
to  use.  Man  was  not  made  to  hang  "head  down- 
wards," as  we  so  often  see  him  doing  in  a  gymnasium; 
if  he  were  he  would  have  a  prehensile  tail,  like  the 
monkey. 

"Where  do  we  find  the  greatest  development  of 
muscular  strength  combined  with  the  highest  type  of 
vital  strength?  In  the  wild  beasts  of  the  forest.  And 
do  they  exercise  in  gymnasiums?  No,  but  in  obedience 
to  nature's  laws,  they  develop  both  their  muscular 
and  vital  strength  to  the  highest  degree  by  almost 
constant  motion  in  the  open  air.  Motion  and  oxygen 
are  the  two  elements  of  strength  in  the  brute.  We 
have  already  learned   some    valuable    lessons    from   the 


PHYSrCAL   EXERCISE.  251 

brute  creation;  let  us  now  draw  another  in  this  ques- 
tion of  exercise. 

Exercise  for  health  means  motion,  not  strain;  and, 
with  this  idea  in  mind,  athletic  contests  of  all  kinds  must 
be  universally  and  unqualifiedly  condemned,  because  it 
will  be  almost  impossible  for  one  to  engage  in  a  con- 
test without  resultant  strain. 

When  a  muscle  is  exercised,  a  portion  of  its  con- 
stituents are  consumed.  As  I  have  already  told  you, 
every  act  of  life  entails,  as  the  result  of  its  perform- 
ance, the  destruction  of  its  former  composition ;  its 
constituents  become  separated;  they  are  chemically 
changed,  and  this  change  gives  rise  to  the  force 
necessary  to  perform  the  action.  But,  when  these 
particles  are  used  up,  it  is  necessary  for  new  ones  to 
take  their  place,  else  the  body  will  suffer  for  the  want 
of  them.  These  new  particles  are  derived  from  the 
blood ;  the  blood  is  pumped  throughout  the  body  by 
the  heart.  Now,  then,  if  these  particles  of  tissue  are 
consumed  abnormally  fast,  their  places  must  be  sup- 
plied with  abnormal  rapidity ;  and  to  do  this  the  heart 
must  act  with  abnormal  rapidity,  hence  an  undue, 
unnatural,  and  unjust  demand  is  made  upon  the 
heart.  The  heart  endeavors  to  meet  this  demand; 
and  in  doing  so  it  is  overtaxed  ;  it  is  strained; 
it  works  hard  and  consequently  becomes  exhausted. 
Then  disease  of  this  organ  ensues.  Thus,  then, 
you  can  understand  that  violent  or  excessive  exer- 
cise of  any  muscles  is  very  apt  to  produce  heart 
disease. 


252 


HYGIENE. 


Let  us  see  how  this  occurs 


*L  ^U 


r% 


Fig.  73. 
Showing  the  Course  of  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood. 

This  diagram  does  not,  of  course,  give,  anatomic- 
ally, a  correct  representation  of  the  heart,  but  it 
serves  to  illustrate  my  purpose.  The  heart  consists  of 
four  cavities,  and  the  blood,  in  circulating  through 
the  heart  and  throughout  the  body  at  large,  follows 
the   course  indicated   in   Fig.  73. 

No.  1,  of  Fig.  74,  is  intended  to  depict  the  main 
blood-vessel  as  it  leaves  the  heart.  Now,  let  us  see 
what  happens;  this  cavity  of  the  heart  contracts,  and 
in  doing  so,  forces  its  contents  of  blood  up  into  the 
vessel  above ;  but,  now,  in  a  second  more,  this  cav- 
ity has  dilated  to  receive  the  blood  from  the  cavity 
below;  why  does  not  the  column  of  blood  in  the 
vessel  above  now  back  into  the  cavity  when  it  dilates? 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


253 


Because  the  opening  into  the  vessel  is  guarded  by 
valves,  which,  when  the  cavity  dilates,  shut  down,  as 
shown   in   diagram  ~No.    2,    and   so   thoroughly  close  the 


I 


if 


Fig.  74. 


aperture  that  not  the  smallest  fraction  of  a  drop  of 
blood  can  pass  through  it.  This  idea  can  be  well 
understood  by  looking  at  the  rough  diagram  of  a 
syringe  (Fig.  To),  in  which  we  see,  as  it  were,  a 
bulb  in  the  course  of  a  tube,  with  a  valve  at  either 
end  of  this  bulb;  when  we  press  the  bulb,  the  valve 
nearest  the  pail  of  water  closes,  while  the  other 
opens  and  allows  the  air  that  was  in  the  bulb  to  pass 
out  of  the  nozzle  of  the  syringe;  when,  now,  we 
allow  the  bulb  to  expand,  the  valve  towards  the 
nozzle  closes,  that  towards  the  pail  opens,  and  the 
water  rushes  up  the  tube  to  fill  the  bulb,  in  accord- 
ance  with    the    law   of    nature   that   abhors   a    vacuum. 


254 


HYGIENE. 


When  we  again  press  the  bnlb,  the  valve  towards 
the  pail  closing,  the  water  is  forced  ont  of  the  nozzle, 
and  so  on,  by  the  alternate  opening  and  closing  of 
these  valves,  is  the  current  of  water  continued  in  the 
same  direction.  But  should  the  valve  nearest  the  pail 
be  inefficient,  we  will  be  just  as  likely  to  force  the 
water  backwards  as  forwards  when  we  compress  the 
bulb ;  in  fact,  more  so,  because  gravity  will  favor  a 
downward  flow,  and  the  integrity  of  our  current  is 
gone.     The   mechanism   of  the   syringe   and   that  of  the 


Fig.  75. 

heart    are  very   similar,    though    that  of    the    latter    is 
more   complicated   and   more   delicate. 

To  go  back  to  the  heart.  You  understand,  by 
reference  to  diagram  No.  2,  why  the  blood  does  not 
regurgitate ;  you  see  the  valve  accurately  closing  the 
aperture;  but  does  it  not  occur  to  you  to  ask  why 
the  column  of  blood,  pressing  down  upon  the  leaflets 
of  this  valve,  does  not  force  them  into  the  cavity  and 
allow  the  blood  to  regurgitate,  just  as  it  passed  over 
them  when  forced  out  of  the  heart.  Do  you  not  see 
the   little    cords    passing  from  the   edges    of   the    leaflets 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  255 

of  the  valves  to  the  inside  of  the  vessel  or  tube  ? 
These  little  cords  furnish  the  answer  to  your  ques- 
tion ;  they  are  just  long  enough  to  allow  the  valve  to 
shut  down,  and  short  enough  to  hold  it  in  position 
when  it  has  occluded  the  opening.  But,  suppose  you 
have  been  exercising  very  violently,  and  the  heart  is 
beating  tumultuonsly,  it  must  be  evident  that  just  as 
the  blood  is  pumped  out  with  unwonted  force,  so 
must  it  recoil  against  these  valves  with  an  increased 
power,  until,  stretched  beyond  the  power  of  resist- 
ance, one  of  these  little  cords  suddenly  snaps  and  we 
have  the  condition  depicted  in  diagram  No.  3 ;  we 
have  now  the  beginning  of  organic  heart  disease. 
The  strain  that  was  formerly  resisted  by  three,  must 
now  be  met  by  two  cords,  while  the  edge  of  one  of 
the  leaflets,  unsupported  by  its  cord,  turns  into  the 
cavity  at  every  recoil  of  the  column  of  blood,  and 
allows  some  little  (rjossibly  one  half  a  drop  at  first), 
of  the  blood  to  regurgitate  into  this  eavity  every 
time  it  dilates.  The  valve  is  now  imperfect ;  the 
integrity  of  the  heart  is  gone,  and,  little  by  little, 
this  imperfection  becomes  more  marked  until  after  a 
while  we  have  the  condition  depicted  in  diagram  No. 
4.  Those  who  have  read  Wilkie  Collins'  novel  of 
''Man  and  AVife,1'  will  remember  how  the  hero, 
Geoffrey  Delamayn,  a  great  athlete  in  his  early  days, 
is,  when  about  forty,  a  guest  at  a  country  residence 
where  some  athletic  sports  are  taking  place.  A  run- 
ning race  is  on  the  programme,  and  at  the  last 
moment   one   of   the  contestants   fails   to   appear;    Dela 


256  HYGIENE. 

mayn,  the  memories  of  his  early  victories  rising  before 
him,  concludes,  though  advised  by  a  physician  present 
not  to  do  so,  to  fill  the  place  of  the  absent  one. 
He  starts  to  run  and  is  rapidly  out-distancing  his 
competitor,  when  he  is  noticed  to  reel  and  totter,  and 
fall  heavily  to  the  ground  unconscious.  He  is  picked 
up  and  subsequently  pronounced  by  his  physician  a 
hopeless  invalid  for  life.  Those  who  have  studied 
these  diagrams  will  anticipate  what  had  happened. 
Delamayn  had  ruptured  one  or  more  of  these  little 
cords.  This  is  but  one  of  the  several  risks  of  excessive 
muscular  exertion.  I  would  be  correctly  understood, 
I  would  not  have  the  impression  conceived  that  I  am 
broadly  stating  that  physical  culture,  that  muscular 
exercise,  is  detrimental  to  health ;  but  what  I  would 
like  to  have  clearly  understood  is,  that  he  who  exer- 
cises that  he  may  develop  his  muscular  strength  to  its 
highest  possible  capability,  is  thereby  lessening  his 
store  of  vital  strength ;  and  I  would  have  you  ever 
remember  the  distinction  that  I  have  drawn  between 
muscular  and  vital  strength. 

While  muscular  strength,  as  typified  by  such  men 
as  professional  pugilists,  will  enable  one  to  lift  great 
weights,  to  strike  great  blows,  to  pull  great  loads,  it 
is  vital  strength,  as  typified  by  such  men  as  Pope  Leo, 
Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  Cardinals  Newman  and 
Manning,  Tennyson,  Von  Moltke,  Gladstone  and  T)e 
Lesseps,  that  enables  one  to  attain  longevity  and  to  do 
so  in  health,  comfort  and  with  pleasure. 

While,    therefore,    moderate    muscular    development 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  257 

may  be  regarded  as  conducive  to  vital  strength,  and 
thus  to  health  and  longevity,  he  who  would  pass  an 
impartial  verdict  must  conclude  that  excessive  muscular 
strength  not  only  does  not  conduce  to  vital  strength, 
but  that  the  means  by  which  it  is  attained  are  directly 
opposed  to  the  greatest  measure  of  vital  strength,  to 
the  best  health,  to  the  greatest  longevity. 

So  now,  recognizing  that  there  are  two  kinds  of 
strength,  we  must  decide  that  which  we  wish  to  cultivate ; 
whether  it  be  solely  or  principally  the  muscular,  that 
we  may  be  able  to  perform  astonishing  feats  of  strength, 
or  whether  it  be  the  vital,  that  we  may  enjoy  good 
health,  immunity  from  disease,  happiness  and  lon- 
gevity. That  great  muscular  development  does  not  insure 
long  life  is  well  attested  by  the  short  lives  of  profes- 
sional athletes,  which,  while  possibly  partly  due  to 
other  causes,  may  yet  be  mainly  attributed  to  their 
over-muscular  development,  or  to  the  effects  of  the 
exercise  incident  thereto.  I  have  been  asked  whether 
I  could  give  any  rule  that  would  serve  as  a  guide  to 
distinguish  between  healthy  and  dangerous  physical 
development ;  and  I  answer,  yes,  an  absolute  and  unfail- 
ing sign.  If  you  are  exercising  and  you  commence  to 
be  conscious  that  you  have  a  heart  by  feeling  its  pulsa- 
tions in  your  chest,  the  danger  line  has  been  reached, 
and  if  you  continue  this  exercise  it  will  be  at  your 
peril.  Here,  then,  is  our  infallible  guide — the  action 
of  the  heart. 

It  is  a  fact  that  a  healthy  man  should  be  unaware 
of  the   existence   within  him   of   any  organ,  save  as  the 


258  HYGIENE. 

grand  result  of  their  healthy  working  is  made  known 
to  him  in  the  sense  of  glorious  pleasure  that  a  healthy 
existence  confers.  Just  as  soon  as  any  special  feelings 
about  the  stomach,  the  liver,  the  kidney,  the  heart  or 
the  brain  forces  the  presence  of  these  organs  upon  the 
attention  of  a  man,  then  may  he  be  sure  that  the 
particular  organ  to  which  his  attention  is  directed  has 
lost  its  integrity,  possibly  only  temporarily,  mayhap 
permanently. 

Now,  then,  a  normal,  healthy  heart  will  contract 
and  dilate,  will  pulsate,  as  we  say,  from  sixty  to  eighty 
times  every  minute  during  your  lives;  but  if  the  heart 
be  healthy,  you  will  be  totally  unconscious  of  this  fact, 
you  will  have  no  more  evident  knowledge  of  the  ex- 
istence of  your  heart  than  you  now  have  of  the  habi- 
tation of  Mars.  If,  on  the  contrary,  you  become  con- 
scious that  you  have  a  heart,  if  you  feel  it  beating 
or  pulsating  in  the  chest,"  then  rest  assured  there  is 
something  wrong.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  you  have 
heart  disease,  as  the  public  understands  it,  and  that 
you  are  in  danger  of  sudden  death ;  but  that  there  is 
something  wrong,  as  I  have  already  said,  either  tem- 
porarily or  permanently.  If  this  evident  action  of  the 
heart  follows  exercise,  then  you  can  depend  upon  it, 
infallibly,  that  you  are  exercising  too  much,  that  you 
have  carried  your  exercise  beyond  the  point  of  safety, 
and  that,  treading  upon  dangerous  ground,  you  had 
better  stop.  I  am  enlarging  so  much  upon  this  question 
of  conscious  heart  action,  because  I  hrmly  believe  that 
in  attention  thereto  is  to  be  found  the    "safety-valve" 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE.  259 

of  physical  culture.  The  man  who  always  desists  the 
moment  he  commences  to  feel  his  heart  beat,  will  be 
very  unlikely  to  do  himself  harm  by  exercise,  while 
the   converse   proposition  is   equally  true. 

Still  further,  I  have  an  idea  (which  I  am  willing 
to  admit  may  possibly  be  incorrect,  though  I  do  not 
think  that  it  is,  as  general  physiological  law  will  sup- 
port it),  that  whenever  any  one  part  of  the  body  is 
developed  to  excess,  such  excessive  development  entails 
a  lessened  vitality  of  the  other  parts.  If,  for  instance, 
the  vital  energies  of  an  individual  are  concentrated 
upon  the  development  of  his  muscular  system,  then 
would  I  fear  that  the  lungs,  the  heart,  the  liver,  the 
stomach,  the  brain,  and  so  on,  would  thereby  be  robbed 
of  that  which  they  require ;  the  vital  current,  or,  at 
least,  more  than  a  due  portion  thereof,  would  be  diverted 
from  the  vital  organs  toward  the  muscular  system. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  a  ' '  happy  medium  ' ' 
in  everything  is  the  condition  most  conducive  to  health 
and  longevity.  It  is  very  generally  recognized  and 
admitted  that  alcoholic  excess  is  inimical  to  health; 
but  it  is  not  so  universally  known  that  an  excessive 
consumption  of  good  beef  will  be  also  conducive  to  dis- 
ease, and  in  like  manner  will  excessive  physical  culture 
have  a  tendency,  ultimately,  to  invalidate  the  person  so 
indulging.  To  go  back,  for  a  moment,  to  the  condition 
of  the  heart  that  we  have  been  discussing.  The  question 
will  be  naturally  asked  whether  by  a  gradual  process  of 
accustoming  the  heart  to  strain,  the  danger  that  has 
been  depicted  will  not  be  rendered  impossible?     To  this 


200  HYGIENE. 

question  I  answer,  no ;  the  danger  will  be  lessened,  of 
course,  but  it  will  not  be  nullified,  and  it  will  be  impos- 
sible for  any  one  who  subjects  his  heart  to  strain  to  say- 
just  at  what  moment  this  strain  may  become  too  great 
for  these  delicate  cords  to  withstand. 

Clearly  understand  me.  I  am  an  ardent  admirer  and 
advocate  of  ' '  physical  culture ;  "  no  one  more  firmly 
believes  that  muscular  development  is  an  essential  of 
good  health ;  but  I,  equally,  firmly  believe  in  the  wisdom 
of  exercising  for  health  rather  than  of  exercising  for 
strength . 

I  would  not  hold  up  professional,  or  even  amateur 
athletes  as  models ;  I  would  not  countenance  contests  of 
strength  and  endurance,  however  interesting  and  attract- 
ive they  may  be;  I  would  not  recommend  walking 
matches,  and  I  would  condemn  with  all  the  fiery  vehe- 
mence of  my  nature  runniug  matches  (horses  were  made 
to  run  and  men  to  wall*) ;  I  would  unhesitatingly  and 
unqualifiedly  say  that  any  form  of  physical  culture  that 
looks  toward  the  accomplishment  of  any  definite  result, 
lie  the  means  and  consequences  what  they  may,  should 
be  condemned.  To  make  my  meaning  clearer,  I  would 
say  that  a  boat  race,  wherein  each  man  of  the  crew  is 
striving  to  make  the  boat  go  as  fast  as  i;>ossible,  and 
where  each  must  do  his  utmost  to  the  end,  regardless  of 
how  he  may  feel  or  what  may  be  the  consequences,  that 
such  a  race,  while  it  may  increase  the  muscular,  will 
surely  deteriorate  the  vital  strength.  What  is  true  of 
boat  racing  is  equally  true  of  all  contests  wherein  as 
much   is  expected   of   the   weakest  as  of   the   strongest, 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE.  201 

and  wherein  ambition  and  false  pride  will  carry  a  man 
to  the  danger  point.  Motion,  as  I  have  said,  means 
exercise,  and  every  time  any  muscle  of  the  body  is 
moved  it  is  being  exercised.  As  I  write,  my  lingers  are 
being  exercised,  just  as  surely  as  they  would  be  in  a 
gymnasium ;  but  if  I  carry  this  writing  to  an  excess,  I 
am  very  likely  to  have  "scrivener's  palsy";  I  have 
carried  the  exercise  of  my  lingers  beyond  the  point  of 
health,  and  disease  is  the  result. 

As  with  the  lingers,  so  with  all  the  muscles  of  the 
body,  exercise  is  essential  to  health,  but  excessive  exer- 
cise is  provocative  of  disease.  Certainly,  I  think,  I  have 
now  made  my  idea  clear.  I  am  not  preaching;  I  am 
only  stating  facts.  If  you  want  to  possess  great  muscular 
strength  for  a  little  time,  so  that  your  friends  will  look 
upon  you  with  awe  and  fear,  go  ahead  and  develop 
your  muscular  system  by  all  the  possible  means  of  vio- 
lent exercise  within  your  reach.  This  is  a  free  coun- 
try ;  we  can  all  do  pretty  much  as  we  please ;  there  is 
no  law  against  a  person  ruining  his  health,  and,  if  .you 
desire  present  muscular  strength  at  the  cost  of  future 
vital  weakness,  you  are  at  perfect  liberty  to  acquire  it. 

But,  if  you  desire  that  measure  of  physical  culture 
that  is  conducive  to  health  and  longevity,  you  will  ever 
remember  that  motion,  not  strain,  constitutes  healthy 
exercise,  and  you  will  never  forget  to  heed  the  caution- 
ary signal  that  I  have  already  told  you  is  to  be  found 
in  the  conscious  beating  of  the  heart. 

By  this  time  you  ought  to  have  a  very  good  idea 
of  what    is    not    healthful  exercise,   and  you  are   com- 


262 


HYGIENE. 


mencing   to  wonder   what  kind  of  exercise  will  be  good 
for  you. 

In    the     first     place,     you     should     learn     to    stand 
properly.     You   may   smile  and  think  that  you  already 


Pig.  76. 


Fig.  77. 


know  how  to  do  so;  but  I  assure  you  that  very  few 
persons  do  stand  properly,  and  when  you  have  studied 
Figs.  76  and  77,  you  will  be  forced  to  conclude  that 
von   are  not  one   of  these  few. 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE.  263 

Fig.  77  shows  the  position  in  which  ninety-nine  out 
of  every  one  hundred  persons  stand.  To  overcome  this 
defect  and  be  able  to  assume  the  correct  position,  as 
seen  in  Fig.  76,  you  must  first  develop  and  strengthen 
the  muscles  of  the  back.  Put  both  feet  together  (or, 
if  you  are  moving  about*  you  need  not  pay  attention 
to  the  feet),  draw  the  hips  well  back,  project  the  chest 
forwards,  draw  the  shoulders  back,  hold  the  head 
erect,  with  the  eyes  looking  on  a  straight  line  ahead 
of  you,  and  draw  the  chin  in.  By  frequently  repeating 
these  movements  you  will  gradually  develop  and 
strengthen  the  muscles  that  should  hold  yonr  body  in 
this  position,  and  thus  secure  the  first  essential  for 
good   exercise. 

Of  all  forms  of  exercise  none  is  equal  to  walk- 
ing. I  truly  believe  that  if  every  human  being  would 
walk  five  miles  every  day  there  would  be  very 
little  business  for  the  doctor.  It  is  said  that  in  Boston 
the  "  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals" 
has  a  man  walking  the  fashionable  thoroughfares 
carrying  a  banner  on  which  is  inscribed,  "Please 
Blanket  Your  Horses.'1''  When,  upon  a  cold  day,  he 
sees  a  pair  of  closely-clipped  and  fashionably  capar- 
isoned horses  standing  in  front  of  a  store,  in  which 
the  owner  is  shopping,  he  stops  and  conspicuously 
displays  his  banner.  Very  soon  a  crowd  collects,  and 
as  the  fat  lady  who  owns  the  team  emerges  from  the 
store,  her  curiosity  is  aroused ;  one  glance  at  the  ban- 
ner, and  she  disappears  into  her  carriage  and  a  pair  of 
horse    blankets    is    the   next   purchase.     Now,    I    would 


204 


HYGIENE. 


mill  B#M    ' 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  2fi7> 

suggest  that  a  similar  banner,  conspicuously  displayed, 
urging  upon  these  good,  fashionable,  lazy,  fat  ladies 
to  '■'■Sell  their  horses  and  walk  more"  would  do  much 
to   improve  their  health   and  prolong  their  lives. 

When  a  person  walks  he  is  exercising  nearly  every 
muscle  and  portion  of  his  body.  It  is  not  considered 
graceful  to  swing  the  arms  when  walking,  but  grace 
and  fashion  must  quail  and  give  way  before  the  dic- 
tates and  laws  of  health,  and  we  ought  to  swing  our  arms 
as  much  as  natural  dictates  would  indicate,  since  by  so 
doing  we  will  exercise  them.  Stop  and  reflect  upon  what 
takes  place  in  walking.  The  legs  and  the  muscles 
connected  therewith,  the  arms  and  adjacent  parts,  are 
all  in  motion. 

When  walking,  place  your  hand  on  any  portion  of 
your  body,  and  you  will  be  surprised  to  find  that  there 
is  motion  in  such  part,  and  you  will  be  gratified  to 
learn  that  such  motion  means  exercise.  Those  portions 
of  the  body  that  you  would  least  suppose  are  in  mo- 
tion when  you  are  walking.  In  addition  to  the  exercise 
of  the  external  and  voluntary  muscles,  all  the  internal 
parts  are  kept  in  motion  and  are  exercised.  The  ped- 
ometer (an  instrument  to  measure  the  distance  walked) 
is  based  upon  this  fact. 

Every  time  you  put  your  foot  on  the  ground  every 
portion  of  the  body  is  healthfully  jarred;  every  organ 
and  part  is  slightly  concussed ;  it  is  shaken  up,  as  it 
were,  its  health  increased  and  its  life  lengthened.  From 
the  sole  of  the  foot  to  the  very  hair  of  the  head,  every 
fiarticle  is  kept   in  motion,   and   is   consequently  exer- 


266  HYGIENE. 

cised.  The  joeclomeler,  an  instrument  with  works  similar 
to  a  watch,  is  loosely  hung  from  the  upper  part  of  the 
vest  pocket;  as  the  body  is  jarred  at  each  step,  a  lever 
is  forced  up  and  down,  which  gives  motion  to  the 
works ;  each  step  is  thus  registered  and  a  hand  on  a 
figured  dial  records  the  number  of  miles  walked. 

This  delicate  instrument  does  more  than  merely 
record,  for  satisfaction,  the  distance  covered ;  it  proves 
conclusively  the  concussion,  or  shaking,  or  moving  of 
the  whole  body  in  walking,  and  speaks  louder  than 
words  in  favor  of  pedestrianism  as  an  exercise.  But, 
walking  can  be  abused;  like  every  other  good  thing  in 
this  world,  too  mucli  of  it  is  as  bad  as  none  at  all. 

For  the  same  reasons  that  gymnasiums  may  be 
injurious  to  the  integrity  of  the  heart,  so  walking  will 
be,   if  injudiciously  indulged  in. 

If  you  walk  exceedingly  fast  you  use  up  muscular 
tissue  exceedingly  fast,  and  the  heart  is  called  upon  to 
supply  the  loss  in  an  abnormally  short  time.  There- 
fore overexertion  on  the  part  of  this  organ  will  be  apt 
to  produce  the  diseased  conditions  already  noted. 

You  can  know  that  you  are  walking  too  fast  when 
you  become  very  short  of  breath. 

There  is  not  nearly  so  much  danger  of  walking  too 
far  as  there  is  of  walking  too  fast.  Fatigue,  gradually 
coming,  will  warn  you  when  you  have  walked  far 
enough,  and  you  will  rest ;  besides,  the  demand  made 
upon  the  heart  from  this  cause  will  be  of  a  totally 
different  nature.  The  demand  will  be  great  and  un- 
necessary,   it  is   true,    but   it   will   be    gradual   and   not 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  2G7 

in  the  nature  of  a  strain.  The  heart  may  become  tired 
from  this  extra  work,  but  it  will  not  be  strained, 
since  no  sudden,  extraordinary  demand  has  been  made 
upon  it.  It  may  be  required  to  furnish  more  nourish- 
ment, but  the  request  will  be  gentle  and  easy,  and 
will  produce  only  a  fatigue  from  which  subsequent 
rest  will  enable  the  heart  thoroughly  to  recuperate. 
A  continuous  walk  of  twenty  miles  in  seven  hours 
will  be  much  less  injurious  than  five  miles  walked  in 
one  hour. 

You  can  realize  and  demonstrate  the  truth  of  this 
statement  if  you  so  desire.  Start  out  sometime  and 
walk  five  or  six  miles  as  fast  as  you  can.  In  a  short 
time  you  will  find  that  you  are  getting  "short  of 
breath,1'  your  heart  will  commence  to  beat  very  rapidly; 
your  head  to  throb;  your  body  to  feel  warm,  and 
when  you  are  through  you  will  be  almost  gasping  for 
breath,  while  your  heart  will  be  beating  so  rapidly 
and  so  forcibly  as  to  be  plainly  felt  against  the  chest 
wall.  This  excessive  action  will  entail  the  same  dangers 
that  the  gymnasium  does.  Here  again,  you  will  note 
what  I  have  so  frequently  said,  that  excess  is  the  dan- 
gerous factor  and  the  enemy  to  health  and  long  life. 

Riding. — It  is  a  question  which  ought  to  take  pre- 
cedence, walking  or  horseback  riding,  as  they  are  both 
such  excellent  forms  of  exercise  ?  In  riding,  the  same 
jarring,  the  same  motion  of  all  parts  of  the  body  is 
secured.  It  is  a  most  admirable  form  of  exercise. 
Indeed,  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  has  truly  and  wit- 
tily  said   that    "the  outside  of   a  horse  is  good  for  the 


268  HYGIENE. 

inside  of  a  man."  The  muscles  of  the  legs  are  brought 
into  play  in  grasping  the  horse's  sides ;  the  muscles 
of  the  arms  in  directing  his  movements ;  the  muscles 
of  the  trunk  in  sitting  erect;  while  the  jarring  from 
the  motion  of  the  horse  is  communicated  to  all  the 
organs  and  exercises  them.  Could  a  more  thorough 
exercise  be  invented  ?  Scarcely,  if  we  except  walking. 
Therefore  we  must  place  the  two  side  by  side,  and 
recommend  the  use  of  both  to  those  who  can  afford 
it.  But  it  is  not  everybody  who  can  afford  horseback 
riding,  while  walking,  in  God' s pure  air,  is  within  the 
easy   reach   of  all. 

Rowing  can  be  made  one  of  the  most  beneficial  and 
most  pleasant  of  exercises,  or  it  can  be  rendered  very 
injurious.  I  would  advise  young  men  to  avoid  boat 
clubs.  When  they  join  such  organizations  they  con- 
stantly hear  of  races ;  their  ambition  is  stirred ;  they 
desire  to  become  members  of  the  racing  crew  from  their 
particular  club ;  and  since  practice  is  necessary  to  make 
them  sufficiently  expert,  they  overwork.  Finally,  the 
picked  crew  is  chosen ;  the  day  of  the  race  arrives ; 
everyone  is  anxious,  and  none  more  so  than  the  mem- 
bers of  the  various  crews.  The  race  begins.  Soon  one 
of  the  men  becomes  exhausted,  but  he  cannot  stop ; 
his  pride  (foolish  sentiment)  will  not  allow  him  to  do 
so.  He  tugs  away  at  the  oar  when  he  ought  to  be  in 
bed.  When  the  race  is  concluded,  he  leaves  the  boat 
a  very  sick  man ;  he  has  overstrained  himself  and  his 
heart  has  given  way  to  the  strain.  In  this  way,  when' 
indulged  in  to  excess,  does  rowing  become  injurious. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  2G9 

If,  now,  you  will  go  out  into  a  boat,  and  alone,  or 
with  a  companion,  paddle  leisurely  about,  not  making 
up  your  mind  to  reach  any  particular  point  in  a  given 
time,  but  resting  whenever  you  feel  at  all  tired,  you 
will  do  yourself  positive  good.  Thus,  then,  the  same 
general  rule  here  holds  good,  excess  is  injurious ;  exer- 
cise iu  moderation  is  beneficial.  Excess  is  to  be  deter- 
mined in  the  same  way  as  in  the  case  of  walking. 

There  is  comparatively  little  true  exercise  in  driv- 
ing, since  the  body  is  quiescent.  Nevertheless,  it  is  a 
form  of  amusement  to  be  commended,  and  there  is 
some  exercise  in  it.  If  driving  yourself,  a  certain 
amount  of  exercise  of  the  arms  and  hands  and  upper 
portion  of  the  body  is  secured  in  handling  the  horse; 
while  if  some  one  else  is  driving,  you  will  derive  a 
certain  amount  of  "shaking  up,"  of  motion  of  the 
body  that  will  prove  beneficial.  Therefore,  while  not 
constituting  true  exercise,  in  the  sense  of  the  foregoing, 
driving,  nevertheless,  is  very  beneficial  and  ought  to 
be  indulged  in  by  all  who  can  afford  it. 

Railroad  traveling  is  a  form  of  exercise  not  much 
commented  upon  or  recognized  as  such,  still  it  is  good 
and  wholesome  exercise.  While,  of  course,  it  cannot 
hold  rank  with  walking  or  riding,  yet  it  is  a  very 
good  stimulant  to  the  body.  The  rattle  and  jar  of 
the  railroad  train  rattles  and  jars  the  body.  It  is  a 
passive  exercise,  it  is  true ;  that  is  to  say,  the  mus- 
cles are  not  moved  voluntarily,  but  they  are  moved, 
all  the  same.  Everyone  who  has  traveled  for  a  day 
in  steam-cars  has  experienced  a  sense  of  great  fatigue 


270  HYGIENE. 

when  leaving  the  car;  he  feels  tired,  nearly  as  much 
so  as  though  he  had  walked  all  day.  Were  he  to 
sit  quietly  in  a  chair  or  lie  in  bed  for  the  same 
period,  he  might  feel  weak  from  want  of  exercise, 
but  he  would  not  feel  tired;  therefore  is  it  that  he 
feels,  and  is,  exhausted,  because  the  constant  shaking 
and  motion  which  the  body  has  received  from  the 
vibrating  and  oscillating  cars  has  exercised  it.  To 
believe  this,  it  will  only  be  necessary  for  you  to 
notice,  the  next  time  you  travel,  how  strong  and 
hearty  all  the  officials  of  a  railway  train  seem 
to  be. 

Bicycling  cannot  be  commended  as  highly  as  it  could 
be  if  the  position  assumed  by  the  rider  were  not  so 
stooped,  this  position  favoring  the  development  of 
"round  shoulders"  and  narrow  and  contracted  chest. 

Having  now  discussed  the  principal  forms  of  exercise 
ordinarily  indulged  in,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  and 
demonstrate  to  you  the  safest  and  best  methods  of  phys- 
ical exercise,  such  as  can  be  enjoyed  by  all,  whether 
rich  or  poor. 

Remembering  that  exercise  means  nothing  more  than 
mot ion,  you  will  be  able  to  understand  the  utility  of  the 
methods  I  am  now  about  to  enunciate.  They  consist 
simply  in  gentle,  easy  movements  of  all  parts  of  the 
body.  When  retiring  at  night,  and  upon  rising  in  the 
morning,  when  clothed  only  in  undershirt  and  drawers 
(so  that  your  movements  may  be  free  and  not  hampered 
as  they  would  be  if  you  were  fully  dressed)  will  be  the 
time   to    indulge   in   such   exercises.     Now,    then,    when 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


271 


you  are  all  ready,  go  through  the  following  performances 
some  twenty,  thirty,  to  fifty  times  each : 

1 .  Extend  the  two  arms  laterally  from  the  body  and 
elevate  them  until  the  two  hands  come  together  above 
the  head;  then  bring  them  back  to  their  original  posi- 
tion and  repeat.  The  steps  of  this  movement  are  seen  in 
Figs.  79  and  80. 


Fig.  79. 

2.  Extend  the  arms  laterally  from  the  body,  and 
elevate  them  one-half  as  high  as  in  the  last  exercise; 
then  flex  the  forearm  on  the  arm.  making  a  fist  of 
your  hand   as   you   do    so;    then    extend    the   forearm, 


272 


HYGIENE. 


opening  the  fist  as  you  do  so ;  or,  you  can  change 
this  movement  to  that  indicated  in  Figs.  81  and  82, 
which  is  very  much   the   same.     An   important   element 


Fki.  SO. 


of  this,  as  of  all  other  movements  of  the  arms,  is  the 
alternate  closing  and  opening  of  the  hands,  as  by  this 
all  the  muscles  of  the  forearm  are  exercised. 

3.     Bringing     your    hands     together    behind    in    the 
region   of   your  loins,    throw   your   shoulders   back   and 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


273 


your  chest  out,  and  remain  iu  tliis  position  for  a  min- 
ute or  so.  This  exercise  will  not  only  cause  you  to 
stand  straight,  but  will  develop  and  expand  the  chest 
so    that    the    vital    organs    within    will    have    plenty   of 


Fig.  81. 


Fig.  82. 


room.     Fig.    83    represents    this   movement,    while   Fig. 
84  shows  the  reverse,  or  faulty  position. 

Look  at  Fig.  84,  and  you  will  see  the  child  in 
whose  narrow  and  cramped  chest  will  be  narrow  and 
cramped  lungs  that  will  gladly  welcome  and  hospitably 
entertain   the   seeds  of   consumption.     But  look  now  at 


274 


HYGIENE. 


Fig.  83  and  see  the  same  boy  (aged  9  years)  with 
his  shoulders  thrown  back,  his  chest  out,  his  abdo- 
men drawn  in  and  his  lungs  distended  (by  full 
inspiration)  to   their   utmost   capacity.     If  this  boy  per- 


Fig.  83.  Fig.  84. 

severes  he  will  never  have  need  to  fear  consumption; 
such  lungs  as  he  will  possess  will  unceremoniously 
expel  the  seeds  of  the  disease ;  such  soil  will  offer 
nothing  congenial  to  the  murderous  little  germ.  This 
position,  combined  with  alternate  forced  inspiration 
and  forced  expiration,  which  means  breathing  in 
deeply   all    the    air    that    the    lungs   can   x)OSSihly   hold 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE.  275 

and  breathing  out  all  that  yon  possibly  can,  consti- 
tutes lung  exercise,  and  in  its  lifelong  practice  in  the 
open  air  is  to  be  found  the  best,  simplest,  surest  and 
only  reliable  preventive  of  consumption  of  the  lungs.  I 
have  told  you  that  the  function  of  respiration,  or 
breathing,  is  both  involuntary  or  reflex,  and  volun- 
tary. That  while  no  effort  of  the  will  can  entirely 
stop  your  breathing,  and  while  ordinary  breathing 
will  be  carried  on  without  any  effort  of  the  will,  yet 
the  voluntary  muscles,  under  the  direction  of  the  will, 
can  increase  the  force  and  depth  of  both  inspiration 
and  expiration.  In  the  child  the  ribs  are  softer  and 
more  pliable  than  in  the  adult;  hence  if  you  will  com- 
mence and  persevere  in  this  lung  exercise,  you  will 
throw  or  force  the  ribs  out,  thereby  enlarging  the  cav- 
ity of  the  chest,  and  thus  securing  for  all  your  after 
life  plenty  of  room  for  your  vital  organs. 

Force  all  the  air  that  you  possibly  can  out  of 
your  lungs,  expire  as  deeply  as  possible ;  then  measure 
the  circumference  of  your  chest  under  the  armpits, 
and  put  this  measurement  down  in  a  little  book;  now 
take  all  the  air  you  possibly  can  into  your  lungs, 
inspire  as  deeply  as  possible ;  again  measure  the  cir- 
cumference of  your  chest  and  record  this  measurement 
in  your  book.  Now  note  the  difference  between  the 
measurement  at  forced  expiration  and  forced  inspir- 
ation, and  see  what  the  difference  is.  Regularly  prac- 
tice this  exercise  every  day ;  repeat  these  measure- 
ments on  the  first  day  of  every  month,  and  note  how 
your  ability  to  increase  the  circumference  of  your  chest 


276 


IIYOIENE. 


will  grow.  At  first,  perhaps,  the  difference  in  these 
measurements  will  not  be  more  than  one  inch ;  this 
will  gradually  increase,  until  with  some  men  the  dif- 
ference in  the  two  measurements  will  reach  the  great 
figure  of  from  six  to  eight  inches.  Not  only  will  this 
exercise   expand   the  chest  and   develop   the   lungs,  but 


Fig.  85. 


it  will  compel  the  entrance  into  the  body  of  a  great 
quantity  of  oxygen,  and  you  already  know  how  neces- 
sary oxygen  is. 

4.  Let   the  arms  hang  downwards   in   their  normal, 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


277 


natural  position,  and  now  rotate  them ;  that  is  to  say, 
so  twist  them  that  at  one  time  the  palm  and  again 
the  back  of  the  hand  will  be  in  front. 

5.  With  the  arms  in   the  same  position  as  in  No.  4, 
alternately    elevate   and    depress    your  shoulders.     This 


Fig.  86. 


exercise  will  be  most  conducive  to  the  development  of 
the  muscles  of  the  shoulders  and  chest,  and  will  make 
you  "  broad- slwuldered."  The  little  boy  in  Fig.  85 
(aged  5),  gives  us  the  first,  and  the  larger  boy  (aged  9) 
the   second   position   0f   this   exercise. 


278 


HYGIENE. 


6.  Standing  erect,  rotate   the  head   slowly  from   side 
to    side. 

7.  Bow  the  head  several  times. 

8.  Standing    erect,    with    the    hands    by    the    side 
(Fig.     80),     bend     over     (as     seen     in     Fig.     87),     and 


Pig.  87. 


rise  again  to  your  former  position  ;  repeat  several 
times.  This  will  strengthen  the  muscles  of  the 
back. 

9.  Standing  erect,  stoop  down  on  your  haunches, 
until  you  are  nearly  sitting  on  the  floor,  then  rise 
and  repeat. 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 


279 


10.  Rotate  the   trunk   from    side    to  side,   and  bend 
it  laterally. 

11.  Lie  on  the  bed;  elevate   first  one    leg,  then  the 
other. 

12.  Move  one   leg    sideways   away    from    its   fellow, 
then   the  other. 


Fig.  88. 


13.  Rise    to    the    sitting  posture,    recline,    and    rise 
again,  and   so   on. 

14.  Alternately  make  and  unmake  a  fist,  as    depicted 
in   Fig.  88.     This   will  develop    all   the   muscles    of    the 


280 


HYGIENE. 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 


281 


forearm  and  hand,  from  the  elbow  downwards.  This 
alternate  opening  and  closing  of  the  hand  is  a  most 
valuable  exercise,  and  can  be  incorporated  into  every 
other  motion  of  the  upper  extremities.  While  execut- 
ing this  exercise  with  one   hand,  place    the    other  hand 


Fig.  91. 

on  any  portion  of  the  exercising  forearm,  and  you  will 
become  fully  alive  to  the  excellence  of  this  form  of  ex- 
ercise, as  you  will  plainly  feel  that  all  the  muscles  of 
the  forearm  are  in  motion. 

15.  Take  up  your  father's  cane  and  go  through  the 
motions  depicted  in  Figs.  89,  90  and  91. 


282 


HYGIENE. 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


283 


16.  While  the  game  of  football  as  played  to-day  is 
absolutely  ruinous  to  health,  yet  a  little  mild  exercise 
with  a  football,  as  shown  in  Figs.  92,  93  and  94,  will 
be  very  beneficial  to  all  your  muscles. 

Figs.  95,  96  and  97  give  us  the  three  positions  of  an 


■ 


■»&-** 


- 


**p. 


Pig.  94. 


exercise  that  we  can  all  appreciate  and  easily  execute. 
Notice  how,  in  Fig.  95,  the  hands  are  open ;  in  Fig.  96 
they  are  tightly  clenched,  while  in  Fig.  97  they  arc1  again 
widely  opened,  thus  introducing  here  the  motions  of 
Fig.  88. 


284 


HYGIENE 


This  is  not  intended  by  any  means  to  be  a  full  table 
of  movements;  Fig.  98  will  suggest  many  more;  they 
are  so  varied  and  so  numerous  that  it  would  be  tiresome 
to  enumerate  them  all.  These  few  will  convey  the  prin- 
ciple,  and  any  intelligent  person  will   soon  be  able  to 


Fig.  95. 


regulate  a  course  for  himself.  The  idea  is  gently  to 
twist,  and  turn,  and  move  every  portion  of  the  body, 
from  top  to  toe. 

Your  common  sense,  aided  by  these  illustrations,  will 
teach   you   how  to  do   this.     If  you  please,   you  might 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


286 


hold  in  your  hands  a  pair  of  light  wooden  dumb-bells, 
or  you  might  use  very  light  Indian  clubs.  Heavy  clubs 
and  iron  dumb-bells  are  injurious,  because  they  will 
cause  more  or  loss    strain.     If   you  go  through  all  the 


■I  K 


Fk 


various  movements  that  your  ingenuity  will  suggest, 
some  twenty  to  fifty  times  each,  you  will  find,  when  you 
are  finished,  that  you  are  tired  enough  without  the  still 
greater  exhaustion  from  overcoming  the  resistance  of  a 


286 


HYGIENE. 


dead,  inert  mass  of  iron.     There  will  be  enough  exercise 
in  overcoming  the  natural  resistance  offered  by  the  grav- 
ity of  your  limbs,  and  no  artificial  weight  will  be  needed. 
This  is  true  exercise ;   there  is  no  strain  about  these 


Fig.  97. 


movements,  and  if  persevered  in  throughout  life,  morn- 
ing and  evening,  devoting  about  half  an  hour  to  it  on 
each  occasion,  it  will  insure  good  physical  develop- 
ment, muscular  activity,  and  healthy  life,  while  it  will 


PHYSICAL    EXERCISE. 


287 


not  interfere  with  intellectual  training,  neither  will  it 
render  possible  the  danger  of  diseased  internal  organs 
from  strain,  providing,  of  course,  you  execute  these 
movements  with  judgment  and  do  not  carry  them  to 
excess,  using  here  the  same  guides  as  in  walking. 

Considerable  space  has  been  devoted  to  this  ques- 
tion of  healthful  exercise,  because  as  a  physician, 
constantly  observing  the  tendencies  of  humanity  and 
noting  the  results  thereof,  I  am  forced  to  believe  that 
because   of  the  results  of  the  present  craze  for  exces- 


(  L"  ,'.  i 

,     ! 

1  < 

I]  1 

k 

ill 

"'-v:'- 

>'' 

1         *V>:' 

\ 

^3  -~-~h.  -.  -2:'..  --'" 

1 

■  .1     ; 

fc 

Fig.  98. 


Hoe  physical  culture  upon  our  boys  (the  future  men), 
and  of  society  upon  our  girls  (the  future  women),  the 
outlook  for  the  future  of  humanity  is  a  sorry  one, 
unless  the  errors  of  to-day  are  made  clearly  apparent 
to  the  minds  of  the  rising  generation. 


288 


HYGIENE. 


No  one  need  say  that  these  exercises  cannot  be 
done,  for  I  here  show  yon  photographs  of  children, 
ranging  in  age  from  five  to  nine  years,  who  are  so 
treated,  and  who  take  great  pleasure  and  pride  in  the 


Fig.  99. 


Fig.  100. 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE. 


289 


exercise  and  its  evident  results.  One  final  word  in 
conclusion.  The  oftener  each  of  these  motions  is  exe- 
cuted the  better  for  the  welfare  of  the  child.  Com- 
mencing   with     ten    of    each,     if    after    a     while     the 


Fig.  101. 


child  executes  each  motion  twenty-five,  fifty,  one 
hundred,  five  hundred  times,  daily,  all  the  better. 
There  is  no  strain  about  these  movements,  hence  they 
run  not  be  repeated  too  often. 


290 


HYGIENE. 


Such  exercises  as  are  depicted  in  Figs.  99,  100, 
101  and  102  will  cause  great  strain,  and  they  should 
not  be  generally  resorted  to. 


Fig.  102. 


Such  and  other  like  movements  are  justifiable  and 
permissible  only  under  the  advice  and  direction  of  a 
competent  physical  instructor  for  the  correction  of  some 
special  deformity. 


PHYSICAL   EXERCISE.  291 

QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 

305.  What  means  exercise? 

306.  Does  use  mean  exercise  ? 

307.  When  any  muscle  or  part  is  exercised,  what  is  the  result  ?  if 
neglected,  what  is  the  result  ? 

308.  What  is  the  result  of  excessive  exercise  ? 

309.  What  are  the  two  forms  of  exercise? 

310.  What  are  the  two  kinds  of  strength? 

311.  What  does  vital  strength  imply?  what  muscular  strength  ? 

312.  Do  muscular  and  vital  strength  always  go  together? 

313.  What  effect  upon  the  vital  organs  will  result  from  excessive 
muscular  development  ? 

314.  What  do  you  say  of  moderation  t  of  excess  ? 

315.  Who  is  a  type  of  vital  strength  ? 

316.  Who  are  types  of  muscular  strength? 

317.  Why  do  great  athletes  often  die  suddenly? 

318.  What  do  you  say  of  gymnasiums  ? 

319.  Where  do  we  find  the  best  combination  of  vital  and  muscular 
strength  ? 

320.  What  are  the  two  elements  of  strength  in  the  brute? 

321.  What  does  "  exercise  for  health  "  mean  ? 

322.  When  a  muscle  is  exercised,  what  becomes  of  its  constituent 
parts  ? 

323.  How  can  violent  exercise  produce  heart  disease? 

324.  Describe  the  mechanism  of  the  circulation. 

325.  Is  physical  culture  detrimental  to  health? 

326.  Give  a  rule  that  will  serve  a-  a  guide  for  healthful  exercise. 

327.  What  is  the  significance  of  conscious  heart  action  ? 


292  HYGIENE. 

328.  What  is  the  "safety  valve"  of  physical  culture? 

329.  What  do  you  say  of  the  "  happy  medium  "  ? 

330.  What  do  you  say  of  "  coutests  "  ? 

331.  What  do  you  say  of  motion  and  strain? 

332.  How  should  we  stand  ? 

333.  What  is  the  best  form  of  exercise  ? 

334.  Describe  the  benefits  of  walking. 

335.  What  is  a  pedometer  ? 

336.  Is  there  danger  of  walking  too  fast? 

337.  What  do  you  say  of  riding ;    of  rowing ;  of  driving ;  of  rail- 
road traveling  ;  of  bicycling  ? 

338.  Give  some  illustrations  of  easy,  healthful  muscular  exercise.  ■ 

339.  Describe  "  lung  exercise." 

340.  What  exercise  will  make  you  "  broad-shouldered  "  ? 

341.  What  do  you  say  of  football  ? 

342.  What  about  dumb-bells  and  Indian  clubs? 

343.  What  will  be  the  result   of  excessive  physical  development 
upon  the  rising  generation  ? 

344.  Are  violent  gymnastic  movements  ever  justifiable  ? 


MENTAL   EXEEGTSE.  293 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

MENTAL   EXERCISE. 

V  A  baby  is  weak ;  its  muscles  are  incapable  of  lifting 
any  appreciable  weight;  it  cannot  even  hold  its  own 
little  body  erect.  As  it  grows  older,  these  muscles,  as 
the  result  of  exercise,  grow  stronger.  To  demonstrate 
that  the  increase  of  size  and  power  of  muscles  is  due 
to  exercise  or  use,  and  would  not  occur  without  it,  I 
will  give  you  an  illustration. 

If  you  should  take  a  little  boy,  ten  years  of  age, 
and  bind  one  of  his  arms  to  his  side,  not  tightly 
enough  to  interfere  with  nutrition  by  obstructing  the 
circulation,  but  so  firmly  that  he  would  not  be  able  to 
move  this  arm,  when  this  boy  became  a  man  he  would 
have  no  more  power  or  strength  in  this  arm  than  he 
had  when  he  was  ten  years  old.  Again,  when  a  limb 
is  paralyzed  its  power  of  motion  is  lost;  the  will  can- 
not cause  it  to  move.  Its  nutrition  goes  on  all  the 
same,  but  on  account  of  the  absence  of  motion  or 
exercise,  it  wastes,  or  withers  away.  So  that  exercise, 
or  use,  is  necessary  for  the  full  development  of  any 
part. 

What  is  true  of  the  muscles  is  equally  true  of  the 
mind.     If  you  were  to  j)lace  an  infant  in  some  isolated 


294  HYGIENE. 

situation,  where,  while  it  had  plenty  of  food,  it  was 
denied  all  means  of  cultivating  the  mind,  it  would 
ever  remain  an  intellectual  child,  while  it  might  become, 
physically,  a  full  grown  man  or  woman. 

When  I  was  resident  physician  in  the  Philadelphia 
Hospital  I  recall  that  we  had  among  the  inmates  of 
the  Poor-Honse,  attached  to  this  hospital,  a  woman  fifty 
years  of  age,  who  had  been  brought  to  the  institu- 
tion when  she  was  only  four  years  old.  During  these 
forty-six  years  she  had  only  once  been  beyond  the 
walls  of  the  institution,  and  then  only  for  a  few  min- 
utes. She  was,  in  all  her  ways,  like  a  girl  of  nine  or 
ten  years  of  age.  Her  world  had  been  narrowed  down 
to  the  inmates  of  this  institution.  Her  mind  had  been 
denied  opportunities  for  cultivation,  it  had  never  been 
exercised  and  was  very  immature.  She  would  play 
with  dolls,  and  her  chosen  companions  were  the  chil- 
dren in  the  house. 

It  was  really  a  sad  sight  to  see  this  gray- haired 
woman  taking  part  in  childish  play  with  as  much 
pleasure  as  those  young  enough  to  be  her  grandchildren. 
Yet  there  was  no  insanity  or  idiocy  here ;  the  mind  was 
all  present,  but  from  want  of  use,  or  of  exercise,  it  had 
remained   nearly  as  it   was  in   childhood. 

The  mind  must  be  kept  in  motion,  just  as  with 
the  body,  else  it  will  not  develop.  Just  as  the  mus- 
cular system  can  be  developed  in  any  particular  part 
by  specially  exercising  such  part,  so  can  the  mind. 
As  the  external  muscular  system  can  be  developed  so 
as  to  produce  great  brute  strength,  so  any  function  of 


MENTAL    EXERCISE.  295 

the  mental  organization  can  be  cultivated  to  great  ex- 
actness  by   constant   use   or  exercise. 

We  see  illustrations  of  this  fact  continually  before 
us  in  men  and  women  who  have  become  famous  in 
some  special  branch  of  mental  work.  In  medicine,  we 
have  certain  doctors  who  are  called  "specialists"  in 
certain  diseases.  It  is  the  same  with  lawyers,  engi- 
neers and  artists ;  he  who  has  made  a  special  study  of 
a  special  subject  has  thereby  specially  developed  a 
certain  portion  of  his  mental  organization,  just  as  the 
blacksmith,  by  a  special  use  of  the  muscles  of  his 
right  arm,  lias  developed  these  muscles  in  a  special 
degree. 

Tea-tasters  so  cultivate  the  sense  of  taste  by  repeated 
and  constant  use  of  this  sense,  that  their  services  are 
in  great  demand  in   commercial  circles. 

By  constant  effort  in  that  direction,  memory  can  be  so 
cultivated  that  astounding  development  of  this  faculty 
will  result. 

The  sense  of  smell,  of  sight,  of  hearing — all,  indeed, 
are   capable   of  development  by  exercise. 

But  here,  as  in  the  case  of  the  physical  being,  the 
desideratum,  the  most  perfect  type  of  manhood,  is  to  be 
derived  from  a  judicious  and  divided  development  of 
all  the  mental  faculties. 

To  accomplish  this  every  function  of  the  mind 
must  be  kept  in  motion,  as  every  muscle  of  the  body  is. 

A  person  must  cultivate  his  powers  of  observation ; 
he  must  not  walk  through  life  like  an  automaton,  look- 
ing   neither   to    the  right  nor  the  left.     He  must  notice 


296  HYGIENE. 

all  that  goes  on  around  him,  and  think  about  all  the 
occurrences  of  life. 

His  mental  occupation  should  be  varied,  for  monot- 
ony will  ruin  the  mind. 

The  life  of  a  person  who  devotes  himself  to  literary 
pursuits  should  be  varied.  He  ought,  to  read  and  write, 
to  think,  converse  and  listen  to  others. 

Thus  will  he  exercise  all  portions  of  his  mind, 
and  he  will  be  capable  of  performing  a  greater  and 
more  varied  amount  of  work.  The  most  perfect  type 
of  humanity  results  from  a  judicious  exercise  of  both 
the  mental  and  physical  powers.  Therefore,  to  attain 
this  high  standard  it  will  be  necessary  to  practise 
the  advice  already  given  about  physical  exercise,  and 
to   combine   the   mental   with   it. 

Business  men  care  very  little  about  mental  develop- 
ment beyond  that  requisite  for  the  successful  prosecu- 
tion of  their  business ;  but  they  ought  to,  for  I  can 
assure  them  that  they  would  enjoy  their  wealth  much 
more  than  they  do  if  they  would  exercise  and  edu- 
cate the  mind. 

If  instead  of  accumulating  a  library  of  handsomely 
bound  volumes,  merely  for  show,  which  they  never 
use,  they  would  read  these  books  and  reflect  upon 
their  contents,  their  ideas  would  become  enlarged, 
developed  and  refined.  They  would  realize  that  there 
existed  a  world  outside  of  their  counting-rooms ;  they 
would  become  intimate  with  the  great  minds  and  sub- 
lime thoughts  of  other  days,  while  they  would  regard  the 
pleasures  and  duties  of  life  from  a  less  sordid  standpoint. 


MENTAL    EXERCISE.  297 

This  reading,  and  subsequent  thought,  would  consti- 
tute mental  exercise.  The  more  a  person  reads  the 
more  will  he  like  to  read ;  the  more  lie  thinks  the  more 
capable  will  he  be  of  thinking. 

Thus,  then,  unconsciously  to  himself,  would  his  men- 
tal being  expand  ;  he  would  gradually  become  more  truly 
a  man,  one  to  whom  life  would  offer  greater  real  pleas- 
ure, while  he  would  be  more  capable  of  being  of  service 
to  his  fellow- men  while  he  lived,  and  would  leave  a 
greater  void  when  he  died. 

But  with  mental  exercise,  as  with  muscular  exercise, 
one  must  be  careful  not  to  go  to  extremes.  Excessive 
mental  exercise  will  act  upon  the  health  of  the  mind  just 
as  excessive  muscular  exercise  will  act  upon  the  health 
of  the  body.  While  an  excess  in  one  direction  may  so 
develop  one  part  as  to  make  you  a  mental  'prodigy,  this 
excess  will  react  unfavorably  upon  the  other  parts  and 
upon  the  body  at  large.  As  with  the  body  so  with  the 
mind,  gentle  use  or  exercise  of  all  the  parts  is  what  we 
should  aim  at.  While  we  cannot  find  quite  so  accurate  a 
guide  to  warn  us  of  mental  excess  as  is  the  action  of  the 
heart  to  warn  us  of  physical  excess,  yet  whenever  one 
who  is  using  the  brain  commences  to  suffer  from  per- 
sistent headache,  or  to  lie  awake  at  night  unable  to 
sleep,  nature  is  sounding  a  warning  that  excessive  men- 
tal exercise  is  being  indulged  in. 

Therefore,  in  conclusion,  exercise  is  of  two  kinds, 
mental  and  physical.  It  consists  in  motion,  and  this 
motion  is  acquired  by  use.  Lazy  men  are  short-lived, 
as  a  rule,   while  activity,   or   exercise,  tends  to  prolong 


298  HYGIENE. 

existence.  Exercise  of  both  parts  of  mankind  is  neces- 
sary in  order  that  a  man  may  become  thoroughly  devel- 
oped and  that  he  may  have  a  long  life,  and  this  exercise 
is  to  be  acquired  by  gently,  but  constantly,  using  every 
portion  of  the  body.       , 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

345.  How  can  you  prove  that  physical  development  is  the  result 
of  use  or  exercise  ? 

346.  What   would  be  the  mental  condition  of  one  who  had  been 
isolated  from  human  companionship  from  infancy? 

347.  Can  you  give  an  illustrative  case  ? 

348.  Is  use  necessary  for  mental  development  ? 

349.  What  do  you  say  of  "  specialists  "  ? 

350.  What  of  tea-tasters? 

351.  Is  memory  capable  of  cultivation? 

352.  Are  the  special  senses  developed  by  use  ? 

353.  How  can  the  best  type  of  mental  development  be  secured  ? 

354.  What  do  you  say  of  monotony  ? 

355.  What  will  produce  the  most  perfect  type  of  humanity  ? 

356.  What  do  you  say  of  libraries  and  of  reading? 

357.  What  is  mental  exercise? 

358.  What  of  excessive  mental  exercise  ? 

359.  What  does  wakefulness  and  persistent  headache  mean  ? 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS.  299 


CHAPTER  XXV. 
BATHING— CLEANLINESS. 

Leaving  all  religious  questions  entirely  out  of  con- 
sideration, there  can  be  no  donbt  that  the  Jews 
were,  and  are,  most  earnest  practical  believers  in  the 
efficacy  of  hygiene.  Moses  was  the  greatest  of  sani- 
tarians; great,  not  only  because  he  taught  the  doctrines 
of  hygiene,  but  still  greater  because  he  was  able  to 
induce  his  followers  to  practise  them. 

Whether  it  had  the  preservation  of  health  for  its 
motive  or  not,  I  will  not  attempt  to  decide;  but  the 
fact  is  very  clear  to  my  mind  that  very  much  of  the 
religion  of  the  Jews  had,  and  still  has,  for  its  founda- 
tion the  doctrines  of  hygiene. 

In  fact,  all  religion  unconsciously  preaches  the  "gos- 
pel of  hygiene,''''  and  he  who  follows  strictly  the  teach- 
ings of  religion  to  their  uttermost  ramifications  will 
be  a  perfect  sanitarian. 

Well,  now,  among  the  Jews  in  ancient  times  there 
sprung  up  a  sect  called  Hemerobaptists,  so  named  from 
their  observing  a  practice  of  daily  ablution  as  an 
essential  part  of  religion.  St.  John  the  Baptist 
belonged  to  this  sect  before  his  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

Your    studies    in    history    have    already   made    you 


300  HYGIENE. 

familiar  with  the  fact  that  in  her  palmy  days  Rome 
was  the  "Mistress  of  the  World."  Rome,  two  thou- 
sand years  ago,  had  extended  her  dominion  all  over 
the  then  known  world.  The  health  and  strength,  both 
physical  and  mental,  of  the  Romans  in  those  days 
was  so  great  that  the  nation  was  irresistible,  and  it 
conquered  everything  that  it  attacked,  and  it  excepted 
nothing  from  its  attacks. 

In  those  days  of  unparalleled  physical  supremacy 
the  most  popular    thing    in  the   Roman  Empire   toas 

BATHING. 

Not  only  were  magnificent  bathing  establishments 
attached  to  the  homes  of  the  wealthy,  but  all  over 
the  Empire  enormous  public  buildings  were  erected 
devoted  to  the  purposes  of  bathing.  That  all  might 
avail  themselves  of  the  benefits  of  bathing,  the  charge 
for  a  bath  in  one  of  these  buildings  was  only  one- 
eighth  of  one  cent;  yet  whenever  an  Emperor  wished  to 
make  himself  particularly  popular  with  the  people  he 
would  throw  open  these  baths  free  of  cost.  Is  it  any 
wonder  that  a  people  amongst  whom  cleanliness  was 
the  most  popular  of  all  things  should  have  enjoyed 
such  wonderful  health  and  vigor? 

The  magnificence  of  many  of  the  baths  of  Rome 
and  their  luxurious  arrangements  were  such  that  some 
writers,  as  Seneca,  are  quite  lost  in  admiration  in 
their  description  of  them.  These  buildings  were  often 
of  immense  size — that  of  Diocletian  being  200  feet 
long — and  were  adorned  with  beautiful  marbles. 

The   halls   were   crowded    with   magnificent   columns, 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS. 


301 


802  HYGIENE. 

and  were  ornamented  with  tlie  finest  pieces  of  statuary. 
The  walls  were  covered  with  exquisite  mosaics  that 
imitated  the  art  of  the  painter  in  their  elegance  of 
design  and  variety  of  color. 

A  perpetual  stream  of  water  was  poured  into  capa- 
cious basins  through  the  wide  mouths  of  lions  of  bright 
and  polished  silver;  water  issued  from  silver  and  was 
received  on  silver.  ' '  To  such  a  pitch  of  luxury  have 
we  reached,"  says  Seneca,  "that  we  are  dissatisfied 
if  we  do  not  tread  on  gems  in  our  baths." 

In  these  days  of  health  and  vigor  the  most  attractive 
resort  in  Rome  was  the  bath,  and  the  people  appre- 
ciated this  fact;  in  our  day  the  decorator's  art  is 
enlisted  that  the  saloon  may  be  made  the  most  attractive 
resort,  and  the  people,  unfortunately,  appreciate  this 
fact  also.  Here  is  a  lesson  for  our  temperance  friends. 
The  mass  of  humanity  does  not  think  for  itself;  it  is 
guided  by  impulse,  and  it  will  seek  that  which  is 
attractive  to  the  senses.  A  beautifully  and  artistically 
decorated,  comfortably  warmed,  and  brilliantly  lighted 
saloon  will  attract  more  human  moths  than  a  dull,  dis- 
mal, bare  and,  often,  dirty  coffee  house. 

The  Emperors  of  ancient  Rome  displayed  more 
knowledge  of  human  nature  than  seems  to  be  enjoyed 
by  the  temperance  leaders  of  to-day;  they  did  not 
attempt  to  compel,  they  wisely  coaxed,  and  they  suc- 
ceeded. 

Along  in  the  fifth  century  we  find  the  glorious 
bathing  establishments  of  Rome  falling  into  decay, 
and  at  the    same   time  we  find  that  Rome  is  no  longer 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS.  303 

"Mistress    of    the   World."     Gradually,    as    cleanliness 
became    more    and    more    of   a    "  lost   art"    anions  the 


Fig.  104. — Julius  Caesar. 


Italians,  did  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  country 
(which  is  an  index  of  the  inclinations  and  habits  of  the 
people)  become    more    and    more    deplorable;    personal 


304  HYGIENE. 

unclean] iness  begot  municipal  filth,  until  the  descendants 
of  the  God-like  warriors  of  Julius  Caesar  were  roused 
from  their  sanitary  lethargy  by  the  frightful  ravages  of 
the  cholera  a  few  years  ago,  a  scourge  that  could 
never  have  entered  the  city  of  Rome  in  the  days  of 
her  magnificent  baths  and  unlimited  use  of  pure 
water. 

Reaction  always  follows  excess ;  hence  the  excess  to 
which  bathing  was  carried  in  ancient  Rome  probably 
accounts  for  the  reaction  that  resulted  in  its  neglect, 
from  which  we  draw  the  same  old  lesson  of  moderation, 
so  often  preached.  Rome  enjoyed  great  health  and 
power,  and  one  element  of  this  health  and  power  was 
the  cleanliness  of  its  people ;  but  carried  to  excess,  the 
reaction  came,  and  filth  and  dirt,  equal  in  degree  to 
the  former  cleanliness,  was  one  cause  of  the  downfall. 

The  pendulum  of  a  clock  swings  just  as  far  in 
one  direction  as  it  does  in  the  other;  push  it  with 
your  hand  six  inches  more  than  usual  to  the  right,  and 
it  will  swing  back  six  inches  more  than  usual  to  the 
left.  So  excess  is  always  followed  by  a  corresponding- 
reaction. 

While,  therefore,  we  learn  from  Rome  the  value  of 
bathing  and  cleanliness,  let  us  also  learn  from  Rome 
the   danger  of  excess,  and  profit  thereby. 

Remember  what  I  have  already  told  you  about 
the  function  of  the  sweat  and  sebaceous  glands,  and 
what  "insensible  perspiration"  is,  and  you  will  be 
ready  to  understand  what  Dr.  Wilson  means  when 
he  says  that  ' '  the  flattened  cells  or  scales   of  the  skin 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS.  305 

are  being  constantly  cast  off,  but  are  retained  on  the 
surface  by  contact  with  the  clothing,  and  mingling  as 
they  do  with  the  oily  products  of  the  sebaceous 
glands,  they  become  glutinized,  as  it  were,  into  a  thin 
crust,  which  covers  the  whole  body.  This,  if  not 
periodically  removed,  attracts  the  floating  dirt  or  dust, 
which  is  ever  present  in  the  atmosphere,  and  the 
consequence  is  that  the  balance  of  healthy  life  is  dis- 
turbed by  obstruction  of  the  pores  of  the  skin ;  a 
larger  share  of  work  is  thrown  npon  other  excretory 
organs,  the  blood  is  liable  to  be  imperfectly  purified, 
and  disorders,  more  especially  of  the  skin  itself,  are 
apt  to  be  induced."* 

So  well  was  this  understood  by  the  Romans  that 
in  connection  with  the  bath  they  used  a  curved  metal 
scraping  instrument,  called  a  Strigillus,  with  which  this 
accumulation  of  dead  organic  matter  was  scraped  from 
the  surface,  this  duty  being  performed  for  the  wealthy 
by  servants,  while  the  poorer  classes  scraped  them- 
selves. 

Thus,  by  promoting  the  excretory  action  of  the 
skin  not  only  is  the  general  health  of  the  body  main- 
tained, but  the  amount  of  work  required  of  the 
internal  excretory  organs — of  the  kidneys,  lungs  and 
liver — is  reduced  to  the  minimum ;  less  labor  is  de- 
manded of  them,  and  they  are  thus  enabled  to  retain 
their  healthy  condition  much  longer  than  would  be 
possible  if  cleanliness  of  the  skin  was  neglected. 

You   will   often   see  dirty   persons,  those  whose  skin 

*  "Healthy  Life  and  Healthy  Homes." 


306  HYGIENE. 

is  so  unclean  that  their  presence  is  really  offensive, 
yet  who  present  the  appearance  of  good  health,  and 
such  cases  make  you  skeptical  as  to  the  necessity  of 
cleanliness.  But  you  must  first  inquire  as  to  the 
vital  inheritance  of  these  persons;  perhaps  they  have 
inherited  so  much  vigor  that  they  are  able  to  keep 
healthy  even  in  spite  of  this  want  of  cleanliness ; 
while  you  must  also  remember  that  this  condition  of 
the  skin  is  placing  extra  work  upon  the  internal  organs, 
in  consequence  of  which  they  will  not  last  as  long  as 
they  would  if  assisted  iu  their  work  by  the  healthy 
action  of  a  clean  skin. 

There  is  also  an  aesthetic  aspect  to  this  question  of 
cleanliness.  If  you  find  the  odors  from  an  unclean  per- 
son so  unpleasant  and  offensive  to  your  sense  of  smell, 
you  must  remember  that,  if  unclean,  your  presence  will 
be  equally  disagreeable  to  others. 

Everything  derived  from  the  earth,  you  will  remem- 
ber, should  be  returned  to  the  earth ;  and  if  you  do  not 
wash  the  dead  organic  matter  from  your  skin  and 
return  the  water  containing  this  matter  to  the  earth, 
these  particles  of  decomposing  matter,  being  detached 
from  your  skin  to  float  in  the  atmosphere,  will  be  in- 
haled and  swallowed  by  yourself  and  others. 

Whenever  it  is  possible  a  full  bath  should  be  in- 
dulged in  daily,  and  the  best  time  for  this  bath  is  just 
before  retiring.  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  best  time 
for  the  bath,  but  my  reasons  for  advocating  the  bed- 
hour  are  that  a  warm  bath  at  this  time  will  be  con- 
ducive to  sleep,  while  the  danger  of  ' '  taking  cold ' '  will 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS.  307 

be  much  less  than  it  would  be  if  the  bath  be  taken  in 
the  early  morning  or  during  the  day,  when  one  is  liable 
to  go  outdoors  with  the  pores  of  the  skin  still  open 
from  the  warm  bath.  I  have  said  warm  bath,  although 
on  this  question,  also,  authorities  differ,  some  claiming 
that  a  cold  bath  is  more  conducive  to  health. 

The  ancient  Romans  preferred  warm  baths;  while  in 
Japan,  where  liot  baths  are  the  rule,  rheumatism  is  an 
almost  unheard-of  disease.  A  cold  bath  is  that  in  which 
the  temperature  of  the  water  is  from  30°  to  60°  Fall. ; 
a  cool  bath  is  from  60°  to  75°  Fall. ;  a  temperate  bath 
from  75°  to  85°  Fall.;  a  tepid  bath  from  85°  to  92° 
Fall.  ;  a  warm  bath  from  92°  to  98°  Fall.,  and  a  hot 
bath  from  98°  to  112°  Fall.  The  Japanese  consider 
anything  below  110°  Fall,  too  cold,  while  anything 
above  120°  Fall,  they  consider  unpleasantly  hot. 

When  first  Japan  became  open  to  the  world,  and 
the  Japanese  began  to  take  the  advice  of  Western 
folks  on  all  manner  of  things,  the  Western  physicians 
strongly  condemned  the  practice  of  hot  baths,  for  no 
other  reason  than  that  it  was  so  foreign  to  their  ideas 
that  it  must  be  bad.  A  regulation  was  issued  that  the 
public  baths  must  not  be  heated  above  a  certain  com- 
paratively low  temperature,  and  there  was  consequently 
great  discontent  among  the  people. 

This  discontent  gave  rise  to  an  investigation  of  the 
subject  by  physicians,  both  Japanese  and  foreign,  with 
the  result  that,  except  in  the  case  of  those  suffering 
from  a  weak  heart,  the  custom  was  pronounced  not 
only    harmless,   but  beneficial.      The  high    temperature 


308  HYGIENE. 

thoroughly  opens  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and,  even  with- 
out the  use  of  soap,  a  healthy  skin  action  and  a  clean- 
liness are  secured  that  are  not  to  be  had  by  any  amount 
of  washing  in  cold  water  or  by  the  taking  of  what 
we  call  "hot  baths."  The  hotter  the  water  the  less  is 
the  chance  of  catching  cold  after  the  bath,  while  a 
really  hot  bath  taken  just  when  it  is  felt  that  a  cold  is 
coming  on  will  generally  stave  it  off.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  general  healthiness  of  the  Japanese, 
living  among  sanitary  surroundings  in  many  ways  very 
defective,  is  greatly  due  to  their  habit  of  frequently 
bathing  in  hot  water. 

Those  who  have  never  taken  a  really  hot  bath  can 
have  no  idea  of  the  refreshing  effect  that  it  has,  say, 
after  a  tedious  journey. 

The  cold  bath  has  its  advocates ;  but  they  will  gen- 
erally be  found  to  be  very  strong,  vigorous  men,  in 
most  cases  athletes,  upon  whom  the  shock  of  the  cold 
water  will  act  as  a  stimulant.  For  the  average  indi- 
vidual I  would  advocate  a  bath  as  hot  as  it  can  be 
entered  without  discomfort.  The  cold  bath  will  not 
open  the  pores,  will  not  favor  the  elimination  of  waste 
material  through  these  pores',  and  certainly  cold  water 
will  not  dissolve  away  the  dirt  from  the  surface  of  the 
body  nearly  so  thoroughly  as  will  hot  water.  The  only 
objection  to  be  urged  against  hot  baths  is  that  they 
may  prove  enervating  and  weakening.  If  one  does  not 
remain  in  the  hot  water  too  long,  I  do  not  think  this 
weakening  influence  will  amount  to  anything,  while  I 
am  quite  sure  that  more  persons  will  suffer  from  inter- 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS.  309 

nal  congestions  as  the  result  of  cold  bathing  than  from 
serious  enervation  or  weakness  as  the  result  of  hot 
baths. 

Let  me  describe  an  ideal  bath.  In  a  tub  full  of 
hot  water,  to  which  a  tablespoonf ul  of  ' '  Household 
Ammonia"  has  been  added,  lie  down,  with  only  the 
head  exposed,  and  soak  for  a  few  minutes.  Then, 
standing  up,  thoroughly  soap  the  whole  body  with  a 
good  pare  soap.  After  this  turn  on  a  hot  shower 
bath,  and  while  the  water  falls  from  a  height  on 
the  head  and  trickles  down  the  body,  wash  the  head 
thoroughly.  This  will  carry  the  soap,  and  the  dirt 
with  it,  away  from  the  body, — and,  having  said  your 
prayers,  you  can  go  to  bed  with  a  clean  body  and  a 
clean   conscience. 

Turkish  Baths. 

Turkish  baths  are  to  be  highly  commended  if 
properly  indulged  in.  The  preliminary  sweating  pro- 
cess opens  the  pores  and  brings  the  dirt  to  the  sur- 
face, from  which  it  is  removed  by  the  subsequent 
washing  with  soap.  But  if  one  goes  out  into  the 
cold  outside  air  with  the  pores  thus  opened  he  is  very 
likely  to  "catch  cold;''  hence,  in  cold  weather  one 
should  not  venture  out-of-doors  within  one  hour  after 
the  conclusion  of  a  Turkish  bath.  I  do  not  think  that 
the  cold  plunge  with  which  the  Turkish  bath  is  gener- 
ally concluded  is  good  for  the  average  individual;  a 
wry  robust  person  may  not  be  injured  by  it,  but  it 
\\\\\    be   safer   for   the   average   person   to   dispense  with 


310  HYGIENE. 

it.  If  one  lias  any  form  of  heart  disease,  great  caution 
must  be  observed  not  to  remain  too  long  in  the  hot  or 
1 '  sweating  ' '    room. 

Sea  Bathing. 

The  ordinary  ocean  bath,  as  indulged  in  at  most 
of  our  fashionable  watering-places,  is  not  nearly  so 
cleansing  as  a  bath  in  ordinary  fresh  water,  with 
plenty  of  soap,  in  a  bath-tub ;  but  it  serves  other  pur- 
poses. It  is,  of  course,  to  a  certain  extent,  purifying, 
but  its  principal  benefits  are  to  be  derived  from  the 
following  factors : 

1.  It  is,  unless  indulged  in  to  excess,  a  most  com- 
mendable form  of  exercise. 

2.  It  promotes  cheerfulness  and  good  spirits. 
Ocean    bathing    can    be,    and    is   frequently,    carried 

to  an  injurious  excess.  It  is  really  a  form  of  exer- 
cise, and  the  same  results  of  excess  will  be  produced 
here  as  I  have  already  indicated  in  the  chapter  on 
Exercise. 

Very  few  persons,  when  carried  away  by  the 
excitement  of  ocean  bathing,  stop  to  realize  how  much 
force  they  are  expending.  When  a  bather  sees  a  huge 
breaker  approaching,  he  braces  himself  firmly  and  lets 
it  break  over  him.  To  realize  how  much  force  is  thus 
used,  allow  yourself  to  remain  passive  and  see  how 
this  breaker  will  wash  you  along,  as  it  would  a  chip, 
towards  the  shore.  This  exertion  will  prove  positively 
injurious  to  anyone  who  may  have  weak  or  diseased 
organs. 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS. 


311 


If  you  are  in  robust  health  and  perfectly  sure  that 
your  organs  are  sound,  a  daily  surf  bath  of  fifteen 
minutes  will  be  beneficial,  but  if  you  have  any  weak 
organ  or  part  you  had  better  avoid  ocean  bathing. 

The    Bathroom. 

Fig.    105    will    give    us    some  idea    of   how   a   model 

bathroom  ought  to  look.     Plenty  of  light ;    spaces   under 

basin  and  closet  open  to  the  air  and  the  eye,  instead  of 

being  closed    receptacles    for  all  kinds    of  rubbish,  as  is 


Fig.  105. 

usually  the  case.  A  tiled  floor  that  can  be  kept  per- 
fectly clean;  the  wall  of  tile  or  painted  (not  papered), 
and  withal  an  air  of  neatness  and  style  very  pleasing  to 
the  eye. 


312  HYGIENE. 

Rules  for  Out-of-door  Bathing. 

Avoid  bathing  within  two  hours  after  a  meal. 
Avoid  bathing  when  exhausted  by  fatigue  or  from  any 
other  cause.  Avoid  bathing  when  the  body  is  cooling 
after  perspiration.  Avoid  bathing  altogether  in  the 
open  air,  if,  after  having  been  a  short  time  in  the 
water,  it  causes  a  sensation  of  chilliness  and  numbness 
in  the  hands  and  feet.  Bathe  when  the  body  is  warm, 
provided  no  time  is  lost  in  getting  into  the  water. 
Avoid  chilling  the  body  by  sitting  or  standing  un- 
dressed on  the  banks  or  in  boats  after  having  been  in 
the  water.  Avoid  remaining  too  long  in  the  water; 
leave  the  water  immediately  if  there  is  the  slightest 
feeling  of  chilliness.  The  vigorous  and  strong  may 
bathe  early  in  the  morning  on  an  empty  stomach. 
The  young  and  those  who  are  weals,  had  better  bathe 
two  or  three  hours  after  a  meal — the  best  time  for 
such  is  from  two  to  three  hours  after  breakfast. 
Those  who  are  subject  to  attacks  of  giddiness  or  faint- 
ness,  and  those  who  suffer  from  palpitation  and  other 
sense  of  discomfort  at  the  heart,  should  not  bathe  with- 
out first    consulting  their  medical  adviser. 

The  Use  of  Soap. 

Dr.  Arthur  Aran  Harlingen  states  that  those  portions 
of  the  body  which  are  most  exposed  to  dirt,  as  the 
face,  neck,  arms  and  hands,  should  be  washed  at  least 
twice  daily  with  warm  water  and  soap;  the  hands 
should  always  be  washed  before  sitting  down  to  meals, 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS.  313 

or  the  dirt  thereon  will  be  conveyed  to  the  mouth  in 
eating.  If  the  full  bath  be  not  indulged  in  daily,  cer- 
tain parts,  as  the  feet,  armpits,  groins  and  neighboring 
parts   should  be  washed  every  evening  with  soap. 

The  amount  of  soap  used  in  the  toilet  should 
depend  upon  the  delicacy  of  the  skin  and  the  exposure 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  A  man  with  a  coarse, 
greasy  skin,  who  has  been  exposed  to  the  dust  all  day, 
naturally  requires  more  soap  than  a  delicate  woman 
whose  skin  is  dry  and  who  is  not  much  out-of-doors. 
Persons  in  whom  the  oil  glands  of  the  skin  are  well 
developed  and  active,  especially  those  about  the  face 
or  shoulders,  require  much  more  soap  in  washing  than 
do  those  whose  skin  is  harsh,  dry  and  lacking  in  oily 
secretion. 

It  is  better  to  apply  the  soap  by  means  of  the 
hands  directly,  without  the  intervention  of  sponges, 
wash-rags,  etc.  Sjwnges  are  filthy  abominations  and 
should  never  be  used;  they  receive  and  retain  the  dirt 
from  the  body,  and  in  a  short  time  become  indescrib- 
ably filthy. 

The#  ringers  insinuate  themselves  more  deftly  into  any 
crevice  or  hollow  of  the  surface  than  is  possible  for  a 
bit  of  flannel  or  a  sponge;  they  can  use  just  the 
requisite  amount  of  pressure  and  friction,  and  they  are 
not  so  likely  to  do  damage  in  unduly  rubbing  or  chaf- 
ing the  skin. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  choice  between  the  various 
soaps  which  are  offered  in  the  market  for  toilet  use. 
Soap    should  be   composed   of   caustic    soda  and   refined 


314  HYGIENE. 

animal   fat    or    the   best   olive    oil,    with    some   suitable 
perfume. 

Because  of  their  cheapness,  soaj)  manufacturers  will 
use  rancid  fats  and  oily  refuse  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap,  strong  scents  being  used  to  disguise  the  original 
bad  odor. 

The  only  way  to  get  a  pure  soap  is  to  buy  that  of 
n    reliable   manufacturer,   and   be   willing   to   pay  a   fair 
price  for  it- 
Cosmetics. 

A  few  words  may  be  said  with  regard  to  cosmetics. 
These  are  substances  applied  to  the  skin,  hair  of  the 
head  and  beard,  nails  and  teeth,  to  improve  their  appear- 
ance. None  are  essential  to  health,  and  some  are  dele- 
terious. Plenty  of  soap  and  water,  exercise,  pure  air, 
and  health  are  the  best  and  safest  beautifiers  of  the 
complexion.  Numerous  instances  are  on  record  of 
poisoning  from  the  use  of  cosmetics  to  improve  the 
complexion.  Those  which  contain  lead  are  usually  most 
injurious. 

Care  of  the  Teeth. 

You  already  know  how  important  the  teeth  are  in 
the  function  of  digestion;  that  unless  the  food  is  first 
well  chewed  by  the  teeth  it  cannot  be  well  digested. 
If  you  have  no  teeth  you  cannot  chew,  and  if  you  do 
not  keep  your  teeth  clean  they  will  decay  and  rot  away. 
The  teeth  should  be  well  brushed  night  and  morning 
and  after  every  meal.  The  particles  of  food  lodged 
between   the  teeth  in  eating,   decay  and  give  rise  id  a 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS.  315 

germ  that  will  attack  and  destroy  the  teeth.  When 
brushing  the  teeth  always  carry  the  brush  all  around 
the  inside  of  the  mouth,  brushing  it  out  well.  Do  not 
be  satisfied  with  brushing  the  front  teeth  only,  as  so 
many  do,  the  back  teeth  also  require  attention.  A 
mixture  of  orris  root  and  chalk  will  make  a  very  good 
and  cheap  tooth  powder. 

The  teeth  should  be  examined  at  least  twice  a  year 
by  a  good  dentist,  as  decay  of  some  of  them  may  have 
commenced  even  before  you  suffer  pain. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  foul,  dirty  teeth  may  even 
cause  bldoc 1 -poisoning.  Dr.  Goodman  reports  the  case 
of  a  man  who  suffered  with  persistent  headache,  irregu- 
lar chills,  bad  breath  and  fever,  which  resisted  treat- 
ment. His  teeth  were  so  encrusted  with  tartar,  the 
result  of  neglect,  that  he  was  sent  to  a  dentist  to  have 
them  put  in  order.  He  returned,  showing  a  beautifully 
clean  set  of  teeth,  and  without  further  medication  the 
man  was  cured. 

The  Finger  Nails. 

Dirty  finger  nails  are  not  only  disgusting  to  look 
at,  but  the  dirt  accumulating  under  the  nail  will  afford 
a  good  breeding  place  for  disease  germs. 

The  Hair  and  Scalp. 

The  hair  and  scalp  require  to  be  kept  clean,  as 
much  so  as  any  other  j)ortion  of  the  body.  The  shower 
bath,    as   suggested,   will   accomplish  this. 


316 


HYGIENE. 


The  Toe  Nails. 
To  prevent  ingrowing  toe  nails  trim  properly. 


Fig.  106. 
The  right  way. 


Fig.  107. 
The  wrong  way. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

360.  What  do  you  say  of  Jews  and  hygiene? 

361.  Who  were  the  Hemerobaptists ?  and  why  so  called? 

362.  What  was  the  most  popular  pastime  in  ancient  Rome  ? 

363.  Describe   the   magnificence   and   cheapness   of    the  baths   of 
ancient  Rome. 

364.  What  is  the  lesson  in  temperance  suggested  by  these  baths  ? 

365.  Was  there  any  coincidence  between  the  physical  decadence  of 
Rome  and  the  destruction  of  her  public  baths  ? 

366.  What  lesson  in  moderation   do  we  learn  from  the  experience 
of  Rome? 

367.  What  is  the  result  of  a  dirty  skin  ? 

368.  Why  should  we  promote  the  excretory  action  of  the  skin? 

369.  How  do  you  account  for  the  healthfulness  of  persons  who  are 
not  cleanly  ? 

370.  What  of  the  esthetic  aspect  of  cleanliness? 


BATHING — CLEANLINESS.  317 

371.  How  frequently  should  we  bathe? 

372.  What  is  the  best  time  for  bathing? 

373.  What  do  you  mean  by  a  cold  bath  ;  a  cool  bath  ;  a  temperate 
bath  ;  a  tepid  bath ;  a  warm  bath,  and  a  hot  bath  ? 

374.  What  of  hot  bathing  and  rheumatism  in  Japan  ? 

375.  Why  are  cold  baths  not  to  be  preferred  ? 

376.  Describe  an  ideal  bath. 

377.  What  about  Turkish  baths? 

378.  What  do  you  say  about  sea  bathing  ? 

379.  Describe  a  model  bathroom. 

380.  What  are  the  rules  for  out-of-door  bathing  ? 

381.  What  do  you  say  about  the  use  of  soap  and  sponges? 

382.  How  can  you  procure  a  good,  pure  soap? 

383.  What  about  cosmetics  ? 

384.  Why  is  care  of  the  teeth  so  necessary? 

385.  Can  dirty  teeth  produce  disease  ? 

386.  What  about  dirty  finger-nails? 

387.  Is  cleanliness  of  the  hair  and  scalp  essential  ? 

388.  How  can  you  prevent  ingrowing  toe-nails  ? 


318  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
DRESS. 

From  the  original  primitive  garment  to  the  elab- 
orate costume  of  to-day  the  progress  of  dress  has  been 
a  gradual  one. 

Theoretically  .speaking,  clothing  may  be  said  to  be 
unnecessary  for  purposes  of  life  and  health ;  the  human 
animal  is  the  only  animal  that  puts  on  clothing  other 
than  that  provided  for  him  by  nature.  Practically 
speaking,  clothing  may  be  said  to  be  necessary  for 
three  purposes: 

1.  To   cover  the  body. 

2.  To  preserve   the  heat  of  the  body. 

3.  For  purposes  of  ornamentation  and  to  cover 
defects. 

In  our  original  state  of  purity  and  innocence  there 
was  no  necessity  for  covering  the  body.  In  a  state  of 
perfect  nature  no  artificial  protection  for  heat  was 
requisite.  In  cold  weather  nature  furnishes  the  horse 
with  an  extra  heavy  coat  of  hair,  which  prevents  the 
too  rapid  radiation  of  the  heat  that  is  generated  within 
him.  So  also  did  nature  for  man  when  man  loved 
nature  and  obeyed  her,  and  so  also  does  she  now  do 
for  millions  of  aborigines  who  know  not  the  restraints 
of  clothing.     I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  nature  makes 


DRESS.  319 

thick  hair  grow  all  over  their  bodies,  but  I  do  mean 
to  say  that  she  regulates  their  heat  producing  and 
heat  radiating  functions  so  that  they  are  prepared 
for  the  surrounding  atmosphere  and  temperature  what- 
ever that  may  be. 

The  originally  perfect  human  body  required  no 
artificial  ornamentation ;  it  was  in  itself  divinely 
beautiful;  it  had  no  defects  to  hide;  it  was  physically 
perfect. 

Among  the  ancient  peoples,  while  we  find  orna- 
mental jewelry  in  common  use,  there  would  seem  to 
be  no  thought  of  using  clothing  for  the  purposes  of 
ornament,  their  sole  thought  in  dress  seeming  to  be 
a   covering   for   the  body.    ■ 

The  ordinary  male  dress  of  the  Egyptians,  1600 
years  before  Christ,  consisted  of  a  piece  of  linen  cloth 
tied  round  the  loins,  with,  occasionally,  an  upper 
garment  or  skin  of  a  tiger  or  a  leopard  thrown 
round  the  body ;  nothing  on  the  head ;  nothing  on  the 
feet. 

In  Greece,  450  years  before  the  time  of  Christ,  the 
chief  and  indispensable  article  of  dress  was  the  Chiton 
(see  Fig.  108),  consisting  of  one  piece  of  material  sewed 
together  in  the  form  of  a  sack,  open  at  top  and  bottom, 
in  height  reaching  from  the  neck  to  the  feet  of  the 
wearer,  and  in  width  equal  to  that  of  the  extended 
arms.  This  is  all  that  the  Grecian  woman  wore  in- 
doors. When  out-of-doors  a  sort  of  woolen  shawl, 
called  Himation,  was  wound  about  the  body  and  pulled 
up   over  the   head. 


320 


HYGIENE. 


In  these  days  of  numberless  articles,  of  mammoth 
closets,  of  huge  trunks,  of  costly  and  elaborate  cos- 
tume, what  can  we  think  of  the  Grecian  lady  of 
nearly  2400  years  ago  with  her  two  articles  of  dress. 
Yet  the  grace  and  beauty  and  perfection  of  form  of 
the  women  of  Greece  has  been  per- 
petuated in  marble,  and  they  are 
even  to-day  models  for  all  artists. 
These  women  had  health,  both  mental 
and  physical,  and  this  was  due  in 
no  small  measure  to  their  manner 
of  dress,  as  we  shall  see  later  on. 

We  must  not  imagine  that  the 
Chiton  was  like  a  coffee  sack;  on 
the  contrary,  it  was  made  of  the  finest 
linen  and  was  beautifully  orna- 
mented. Among  the  Romans,  the 
loose  flowing  toga  is  so  familiar  as  to 
need  only  mention. 

The  point  to  be  made  is  that  as 
we  go  back  to  these  ancient  peoples  who  were  many 
hundreds  of  years  closer  to  the  original  natural  state 
of  man  than  we  are,  the  more  simple  do  we  find  their 
dress,  and  always  do  we  see  it  designed  so  that  it  will 
cover  and  protect  the  body  without  constricting  it. 

In  the  more  elaborate  costumes  of  the  Egyptian  and 
Assyrian  kings  and  queens,  while  there  is  more  attempt 
at  ornamentation  in  dress,  we  yet  see  that  freedom  of 
movement  and  freedom  from  pressure  are  guiding 
motives. 


Fm.  108. 
The  Chiton. 


-  G? 


8  a 

fe    be 


fe^ 


322 


HYGIENE. 


At  the  present  time  all  the  Eastern  nations  are  more 
or  less  inclined  to  wear  loose  and  long,  flowing  gar- 
ments ;  their  trousers,  when  any  are  worn,  are  very 
long  and  gathered  in  at  the  ankles. 


Fig.  112. 
Eastern  Costume. 


Hygienically   considered,    the    garb    that    is  worn  by 
the  women  of  Eastern  countries  (Fig.  112)  has  far  more 


DliESS. 


323 


Fig.  113. 
A  Sanitary  Custom. 


324  HYGIENE. 

to  commend  it  than  the  tight-fitting,  body-distorting 
dress  of  our  more  highly  progressive  nations.  The  loose, 
flowing  robes  are  certainly  much  more  graceful  and  offer 
much  less  resistance  to  the  freedom  of  movement  so 
essential  to  health  than  the  garments  in  use  in  our 
own  country. 

Fig.  113  illustrates  a  custom  of  dress  that  is  observed 
in  Mohammedan  countries.  I  wonder  if  this  custom  of 
dress  did  not  have  its  origin  in  a  hygienic  principle. 

I  have  already  told  you  that  nature  designs  that  we 
should  breathe  through  the  nose,  and  this  she  does  for 
two  reasons : 

1.  The  air  is  thereby  warmed  before  it  reaches  the 
lungs. 

2.  Disease  germs  floating  in  the  atmosphere  are 
caught  and  held  by  the  moist  lining  membrane  of  the 
nose,  from  which  they  are  discharged  when  we  blow 
this  organ. 

May  it  not  be  that  these  so-called  benighted  follow- 
ers of  Mohammed  might  have  originated  this  custom  of 
covering  the  mouth  and  nose  when  on  the  street  in 
order  to  still  farther  enhance  the  efficacy  of  prevention 
afforded  by  nose-breathing.  Be  this  as  it  may,  while 
we  cannot  hope  for  the  universal  adoption  of  this  pagan 
custom,  nor  do  we  ask  for  it,  yet  I  am  quite  sure  that 
such  a  protection  to  the  lungs  in  the  cold  days  of 
winter  will  do  much  to  save  the  integrit}^  of  these  vital 
organs.  Particularly  would  I  advise  an  imitation  of 
this  Mohammedan  custom  for  the  aged  and  for  those 
whose  lungs  are  not  very  strong. 


DRESS.  325 

I  have  told  you  that  in  a  state  of  nature  clothing- 
is  not  really  necessary  for  the  conservation  of  heat.  I 
have  seen  the  dress,  the  whole  costume  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, from  far  up  the  Nile,  which  consisted  merely  of  a 
narrow  band  of  leather  to  encircle  the  waist,  from  which 
depended  leather  fringe  of  variable  length.  The  Indians 
of  our  far  Northwest,  who  are  subjected  to  the  coldest 
of  weather,  oftentimes,  when  found  in  their  native,  sav- 
age condition,  have  been  known  to  wear  but  little  more. 
Here,  then,  from  the  balmy  climate  of  Nubia  on  the  one 
extreme,  and  from  the  freezing  regions  of  our  great 
Northwest  on  the  other,  come  living  and  speaking 
examples  to  teach  us  that  clothing  is  not  really  neces- 
sary for  human  nature,  but  is  one  of  those  necessities 
which  the  exigencies  and  misfortunes  of  artificial  life 
have  forced  upon  us.  But  I  am  not  writing  this  book 
for  aboriginal  Egyptians  and  Indians.  Therefore,  having 
used  them  to  point  my  statement,  that  clothing  is  not 
necessary,  or  would  not  be  so  for  man  in  his  natural 
state,  I  will  come  down  to  the  practical  points  involved 
in  dress  and  discuss  clothing  as  I  rind  it  among  the 
majority  of  my  prospective  readers.  Do  not  forget  that 
clothing  does  not  maize  the  body  warm,  it  only  serves 
to  keep  it  so ;  remember  that  heat  is  generated  within 
the  body,  and  the  clothing  pre  vents  its  too  rapid  dissi- 
pation into  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 

We  will  now  commence  at  the  top  and  go  down  to 
the  feet,  and  tell  you  about  each  article  of  clothing  and 
what  will  be  the  best. 

High  beaver  hats  in  winter  and  high  white  cloth  hats 


326 


HYGIENE. 


in  summer  are,  by  all  odds,  the  most  healthful  head- 
gear for  men,  and  hats  approaching  these  in  shape,  for 
boys. 

For  the  vigorous  growth  of  the  hair  and  to  insure 
a  healthy  condition  of  the  scalp,  it  is  necessary  that 
both  should  have  plenty  of  air,  which  will  at  the 
same  time  serve  to  keep  the  head  cool  and  prevent 
many   a  headache. 

A   low-crowned  hat   will  necessarily  confine   a  small 

quantity  of  air  on  top  of  the 
head,  which  will  soon  become 
foul  and  superheated  from  the 
dead  tissue  and  heat  given  off. 
But  if  you  take  a  high 
hat  and  have  a  small  hole 
punched  through  either  side 
just  above  the  brim,  and  a 
larger  hole  in  the  centre  of 
the  croAvn,  it  will  act  like  the 
pipe    of    a    stove;     there    will 

be    a    constant     draught,     be- 
Fig.  114.  ° 

cause  the  heat  from  the  head 
will  warm  the  air,  causing  it  to  ascend  and  escape 
through  the  upper  opening,  while  fresh  air  will  enter 
at  the  sides  to  take  its  place,  thus  creating  a  constant 
current  that  will  be  very  conducive  to  health.  Clothing 
serves  to  keep  heat  within  the  body.  But  it  will  not 
do  to  have  too  much  heat  retained;  the  surface  must 
be  cooled  by  evaporation  into  the  surrounding  atmos- 
phere, else  the  body  would  be  feverish. 


DRESS.  327 

Therefore,  while  clothing  shields  the  surface  from 
the  air,  it  must  be  of  such  a  quality  as  to  absorb  the 
perspiration  itself. 

To  combine,  then,  the  two  necessary  qualifications 
for  clothing  we  needs  must  have  material  that  is  por- 
ous and  capable  of  absorbing  water,  while  at  the  same 
time  that  worn  in  winter  must  be  a  poor,  and  that 
for  summer  a  good,  conductor  of  heat. 

There  are  two  principal  features  in  connection  with 
heat  that  more  particularly  concern  us  in  their  relations 
to  the  human  body,  namely,  conduction  or  radiation 
and  reflection.  By  the  first,  any  excess  of  heat  is  con- 
ducted, or  taken  away,  from  the  body,  while  by  the  second 
any  outside  very  high  degree  of  heat  is  reflected  away 
from   the  body,  just  as  light  is   reflected  from  a  mirror. 

From  these  two  indications  has  arisen  the  prevalent 
fashion  of  wearing  dark  colored  clothing  in  winter  and 
light  colored  clothing  in  summer. 

While  the  texture  and  thickness,  of  course,  make  a 
difference,  yet  the  color  is  a  very  important  factor. 
Dark  materials  absorb  heat  from  the  sun's  rays,  when 
the  air  in  the  interstices  between  the  fibres  of  the 
garments  becomes  warm,  and  so  retains  the  heat  in  the 
body;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  light-colored  material 
will  reflect  back  the  heat  of  the  sun,  so  that  this  addi- 
tional heat  will  not  be  added  to  that  generated  within 
the  body. 

For  this  reason  do  men  wear  white  high  hats  and 
white  straw  hats  in  summer,  while  dark  or  black 
hats   are   the  rule   in   winter. 


328  HYGIENE. 

Now  we  come  to  collars.  They  should  be  worn  loose, 
so  as  not  to  constrict  the  neck  in  the  slightest  degree. 
Some  of  the  largest  and  most  important  blood-vessels 
in  the  body  pass  np  and  down  through  the  neck ; 
just  beneath  the  skin  of  the  neck  are  two  very  large 
veins  that  bring  back  the  blood  from  the  brain.  If 
the  collar  is  tight  and  compresses  these  veins,  it  will, 
of  course,  interfere  with  the  return  of  blood  from  the 
brain,  when  a  certain  amount  of  congestion  (of  too 
much   blood  in  the  brain)  will  be  the  result. 

Then  comes  underclothing.  In  winter  you  should 
wear  underclothing  made  of  wool  for  these  two  reasons-: 

1.  Because  it  will  keep  the  heat  in  the  body. 

2.  Because  it  will  absorb  the  surface  moisture. 

For  those  who  can  afford  it,  silk  is  the  best  for 
winter  use,  because  it  is  the  poorest  conductor  of  heat 
and  will,  therefore,  keep  the  body  warmer. 

It  will  be  well  to  wear  woolen  underclothing  all 
the  year  through,  very  thin  in  summer,  heavier  in 
winter,  because  wool  next  to  the  skin  to  absorb  the 
moisture  will  be   a  very   wise  precaution. 

Excessively  heavy  underclothing  will  be  injurious, 
because  this  great  weight  will  really  exhaust  the  body 
in  supporting  it.  It  will  be  much  safer  to  dress  only 
moderately  warmly  and  to  supply  any  deficiency  in 
heat  by  proper  food  and  exercise. 

.It  is  a  mistake  to  wear  very  heavy  outside  cloth- 
ing in  winter.  While,  of  course,  you  must  make  a 
difference  between  winter  and  summer,  yet  even  on 
the  coldest  days  the  clothing  ought  to  be  only  moderately 


dkess.  320 

heavy,  for  the  following  reason :  If  yon  accustom  your- 
self to  the  use  of  very  heavy  clothing  in  an  artifi- 
cially heated  house,  yon  will  be  very  apt  to  "take 
cold"   when    yon   go    out-of-doors. 

It  would  be  much  wiser  to  wear  a  moderately  heavy 
suit,  and  never  go  out-of-doors  without  putting  on 
an  overcoat.  Do  not  put  on  your  extra  coat  and  then 
remain  in  the  warm  room  for  a  few  minutes ;  put  it  on 
just  before  you  leave  the  house,  and  take  it  off  the 
moment  you  enter. 

A  long  cloak,  reaching  to  the  knees,  well  lined,  will 
be  an  improvement  on  the  overcoat ;  in  its  capacious 
folds  one  can  envelop  himself  and  defy  the  coldest  days. 

It  is  so  much  easier  to  throw  the  cloak  over  your 
shoulders  and  draw  it  about  you  than  it  is  to  pull  on 
a  heavy  overcoat,  pull  down  your  undercoat,  that  it 
may  not  project  above  the  collar  of  your  greatcoat, 
and  button  this  about  you,  that  I  am  sure  the  superior 
claims  of  the  cloak  will  commend  themselves  to  all  who 
give  it  a  trial. 

Now  we  come  to  stockings,  and  very  few  persons 
realize  what  an  important  part  these  little  garments 
play  in   the  preservation  of  health. 

Two  golden  rules  have  been  laid  down  that  ought 
to  be  observed  by  everyone. 

1.  Keep  your  head  cool. 

2.  Keep  your  feet  warm. 

Every  part  of  the  body  contains  a  certain  amount 
of  blood;  when  a  part  is  warm  it  contains  more  blood, 
and  nice  versa.     This   you  can  understand,    because  the 


330  HYGIENE. 

cold  will  contract  the  blood-vessels  of  the  part  that  is 
cold  and  drive  the  blood  out  of  them,  while  heat,  on 
the  contrary,  will  dilate  the  vessels  and  invite  a  How 
of  blood  into  them. 

If  your  feet  are  cold  the  blood  therein  is  driven 
out ;  but  it  must  go  somewhere ;  it  cannot  leave  the 
body,  and  so  it  ascends  and  forces  its  unwelcome 
presence  upon  some  of  the  warm,  internal  and  vital 
organs ; — unwelcome,  because  they  already  have  enough 
blood  and  do  not  require  any  more ;  hence  it  is  that 
wet  and   cold  feet   so  often  cause  "colds." 

Some  years  ago  there  lived  in  our  city  a  very 
eminent  clergyman  who,  with  his  other  profound 
knowledge,  thoroughly  realized  and  appreciated  the 
necessity  of  keeping  his  feet  warm.  He  always  had 
a  large  supply  of  stockings  of  different  degrees  of 
thickness ;  outside  of  his  window  hung  a  thermometer ; 
when  he  arose  in  the  morning  he  consulted  his  ther- 
mometer, and  decided  what  pair  of  stockings  he  would 
wear  according  to  the  degree  of  heat  or  cold  that  it 
registered.  Many  persons  laughed  at  him  for  his  "old- 
maidish''''  habit,  frut  he  lived  to  great  old  age  and 
performed  an  immense  amount  of  work. 

Now  for  shoes.  I  am  quite  sure  that  corns  and 
bunions  were  unknown  in  the  days  when  man  went 
barefoot.  Ill-fitting  shoes  are  prolific  sources  of  much 
discomfort,  and  are  always  the  cause  of  corns. 

A  corn  is  due  to  irritation,  by  which  excessive 
activity  of  the  skin  is  excited,  causing  it  to  become 
thick  and  hard  at  the  point  so  irritated.     You  remem- 


DRESS. 


331 


ber  that  the  nerves  of  the  skin  terminate  in  the  true 
skin  :  that  is,  below  the  outer  layer.  When  the  outer 
skin  becomes  thick  and  hard  and  tough  from  pressure 
and  irritation,  it  impinges  on  the  sensitive  extremity 
of  a  nerve,  hence  the  painful  corn. 


A,  normal  foot,  proper  position  of  toes;  B,  normal  foot,  with  an  outline  of  the 
front  part  of  an  improper  shoe  ;  (\  toes  crowded  out  of  position  as  result  of 
wearing  such  an  improper  shoe. 


Fig.  116. 
An  improper  shoe.  A  proper  shoe. 

From  Walkers  Physiology.     Allyn  &  Bacon,  Boston. 

If,  then,  an   ill-fitting   shoe   rubs   or  presses   on   any 
particular  part  of    the  foot   more  than   on  another,   it 


332  HYGIENE. 

will  be  very  apt  to  produce  a  corn  wherever  this  pres- 
sure may  have  been  exerted. 

A  good  rule  will  be  to  buy  shoes  sufficiently  loose 
that  you  may  put  them  on  when  new  and  wear  them 
straight  along,  without  the  necessity  of  gradually 
' '  breaking  them  in. ' '  A  shoe  that  must  be  gradually 
"broken  in"  will  be  all  the  time  gradually  ruining 
the  feet. 

Again,  loose-fitting  shoes  will  be  better  calculated 
to  keep  the  feet  warm,  because  they  will  allow  space 
between  the  foot  and  its  coverings  for  a  quantity  of 
warm  air,  heated  from  the  foot ;  while  if  the  shoe  -fits 
"skin-tight"  the  foot  will  thus  be  brought  almost 
into  direct  contact  with  the  outside  air. 

Above  all  things,  avoid  short  shoes;  there  is  no 
more  prolific  cause  of  that  terribly  annoying,  obsti- 
nate and  painful  trouble,  "  ingrowing  toe-nail ',"  than 
short  shoes.  The  best  plan  of  shoe  is  that  where  the 
sole  is  long  and  broad,  projecting  as  much  as  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  beyond  the  foot  and  the  upper.  By  all  means 
avoid  sharp -pointed  shoes. 

India-rubber  shoes  and  India-rubber  coats  are  very 
good  articles  in  their  time  and  place,  but  you  must  be  very 
sure  that  they  are  not  used  out  of  time.  Since  they  are 
designed  to  protect  you  from  water  you  must  use  them 
only  when  you  are  exposed  to  water.  If  you  wear  heavy 
overshoes  made  of  India-rubber  on  a  clear,  dry  day,  no 
matter  how  cold  it  may  be  (and  the  same  can  be  said  of 
an  India-rubber  coat),  you  do  yourself  an  injury.  Be- 
cause, while  India-rubber  is  impervious  to  water,  it  also 


DRESS.  333 

refuses  passage  to  air,  hence  the  process  of  evaporation 
from  the  surface  is  impeded  and  the  water  with  its  solid 
refuse  is  compelled  to  remain  on  the  skin.  The  same 
thing,  it  is  true,  will  occur  in  rainy  weather,  but  then 
the  benefit  derived  from  the  protection  from  wet  will- 
offset  the  injury  from  the  retention  of  perspiration. 

All  extra  wraps,  of  whatever  character,  whether 
they  partake  of  the  nature  of  coats,  cloaks,  scarfs  or 
gum  material,  impervious  to  water,  should  be  worn  only 
when  you  are  exposed  to  cold  or  wet,  and  ought  to  be 
at  once  removed  when  you  enter  any  heated  building. 
If  you  neglect  this  rule  you  will  be  very  apt  to  take 
cold,  and  no  one  can  tell  where  an  ordinary  cold  will 
terminate. 

The  same  advice  about  woolen  undergarments  ap- 
plies to  women  and  girls  in  an  especial  manner.  A 
man  or  boy  will  be  protected,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  the 
style  of  his  outside  garments ;  while  the  loose  dresses 
and  petticoats  of  the  female  will  act  like  a  veritable 
funnel,  the  heat  of  the  body  will  tend  to  cause  an 
upward  draught  that  will  invite  the  cold  air  from  below 
to  flow  upwards  into  contact  with  the  surface.  Woolen 
drawers  and  undershirts  will  protect  them  from  this  danger. 

All  the  remarks  that  have  been  made  about  clothing 
in  general  apply  equally  to  females ;  but  there  are 
some  special  features  about  their  dress  that  require 
special  notice. 

Corsets  are  used  by  women  and  girls  on  the  theory 
that  as  the  lower  part  of  the  corset  rests  on  the  promi- 
nences of  the  hips,  the  stiff  bones  in  the  sides  will  give 


334 


HYGIENE. 


support  to  the  upper  portion  of  the  body  and  all  the 
organs  it  contains.  These  corset  bones  really  act  as 
additional,  artificial  ribs  or  chest  walls  and  backbone. 
While  corsets  are  unnecessary  and  health  would  be  bet- 
ter without  them,  yet,  so  long  as  they  are  used  merely 
as  supports,  their  use  is  not  so  very  harmful. 


Fig.  117. 

Represents  the  normal  appearance 

of  the  ribs. 


Iiinimil' 

Fig.  118. 
Represents  part  of  a  photograph  of  the 
skeleton  of  a  young  woman  of  twenty- 
three  years,  showing  the  distortion  of 
the  ribs  produced  by  tight  lacing  in 
an  actual  rase. 


But  the  majority  of  fashionable  women  do  not  stop 
here.  They  use  corsets  as  an  instrument  of  torture, 
really,  by  means  of  which  they  lace  themselves  until 
they  reduce  their  waists  to  unnaturally  small  propor- 
tions. It  will  be  impossible  to  do  this  without  com- 
pressing the  vital  organs  in  the  chest  and  abdomen,  and 
it  will  be  impossible  for  organs  so  compressed  to  do 
their  duty. 


DRESS. 


335 


In  a  word,  to  dismiss  the  subject,  because  it  is  not 
one  that  admits  of  argument :  no  woman  or  girl  can 
remain  long  healthy  who  resorts  to  very  tight  lacing. 
(Figs.    117  and   118.) 

In  wet  weather  it  would  be  well  for  women  and 
girls  to  wear  thin  rubber  leggings  from  the  knee  down ; 
by  so  doing  they  will  not  only  keep  the  limbs  warm, 
but  will  prevent  the  wet  and  muddy  skirts  from  com- 
ing into  contact  with  the  stockings.  If  these  are  used 
in  connection  with  the  woolen  underclothing,  with  an 
old-fashioned    worsted    sontag    over    the    body    of    the 


Fig.  119. 

dress  to  protect  the  chest,  and  with  waterproof  and 
gum  shoes,  the  most  fragile  female  is  prepared  to 
brave  the  most  inclement  weather  and  to  derive  posi- 
tive benefit  from  such  exposure.  Why  it  is  I  do  not 
know,  but  it  seems  to  be  a  peculiarity  of  females  to 
have  a  passion  for  high-heeled  shoes.  They  are  very 
injurious.  God  intended  the  foot  to  rest  squarely  on 
tli<j  ground,  and  if  it  does  not  do  so  the  whole  body 
is  thrown  out  of  position.  That  in  a  high-heeled 
shoe  the  foot  cannot,  and  does  not,  rest  squarely  on 
the  ground  is  plainly  seen  in  Fig.  119. 


336  HYGIENE. 

Suspend  all  your   clothing  from  the  shoulders,  and 

allow  no  article  to  be  kept  in  position  by  a  circular 
constricting  force.  Boys  should  always  support  the 
trousers  with  suspenders,  and  never  with  a  belt 
strapped  tightly  around  the  waist. 

Females  should  suspend  the  skirts  by  bands  from 
the  shoulders.  A  piece  of  elastic,  with  a  button-hole 
in  either  end,  one  end  buttoned  to  a  button  on  the 
stocking,  the  other  end  to  a  button  on  the  drawer- 
body,  will  support  the  stockings  without  the  necessity 
of  constricting  garters.  The  ordinary  elastic  garter 
is  injurious,  because  it  exerts  compression  and_-thus 
interferes  with  free  circulation  in  the  skin.  By  the 
means  suggested,  all  constriction  will  be  removed  from 
every  portion  of  the  body;  and  this  is  the  object  you 
must  desire  to  accomplish. 

A  word  about  shoulder  braces  for  the  correction  of 
drooping  or  stooping  shoulders.  They  are  worse  than 
useless,  as  they  make  the  deformity  worse ;  hence,  of 
course,  they  should  not  be  used.  Drooping  shoulders 
are  caused  by  weakness  of  the  muscles  that  ought  to 
hold  the  shoulders  back ;  and  this  weakness  is  due  to 
want  of  use  of  these  muscles.  Braces,  by  doing  that 
which  these  muscles  should  do,  still  further  weaken 
them,  and  when  the  braces  are  removed  the  deformity 
is  even  greater  than  it  was  before  their  use.  Round 
or  stooping  shoulders  must  be  corrected  by  exercising, 
and  thus  strengthening  the  muscles  that  hold  the 
shoulders  back ;  and  this  form  of  exercise  has  been 
depicted  in  Figs.   84  and  85. 


DRESS,  337 

QUESTIONS    FOR   REVIEW. 

389.  Is  clothing  necessary  for  life  and  health? 

390.  What  are  the  purposes  of  clothing? 

391.  What  constituted  the  dress  of  the  Egyptians? 
392.'  What  was  the  chief  article  of  dress  in  Greece  ? 

393.  What   relation  did  the  dress  of  the  Grecian  women  hold  to 
their  grace  and  beauty  ? 

394.  As  we  go  hack  to  primitive  humanity,  what  do  we  notice  about 
dress  ? 

395.  What  do  you  say  of  the  garb  of  Eastern  countries? 

396.  Why  should  we  breathe  through  the  nose  ? 

397.  How  can  you  prove  that  clothing  is  not  a  necessity  of  life  ? 

398.  Dues  clothing  make  the  body  warm? 

399.  What  style  of  hat  i3  the  most  healthful? 

400.  What    are   the   essential  qualifications   of  material   used   for 
clothing? 

401.  What  of  "  conduction  and  reflection  "  ? 

402.  Why  do  we  wear  dark  clothing  in  winter  and  light  clothing  in 
summer? 

403.  What  of  texture  and  thickness? 

404.  What  about  collars? 

405.  What  do  you  say  about  underclothing? 

406.  Is  it  right  to  wear  very  heavy  clothing  in  winter? 

407.  What  about  cloaks  versus  overcoats? 

408.  What  do  you  say  about  stockings? 

409.  What  are  two  golden  rules  of  health? 

410.  What  is  the  effect  of  cold  feet? 

411.  What  about  shoes,  and  corns  and   bunions? 


338  HYGIENE. 

412.  Give  a  good  rule  to  guide  us  in  the  purchase  of  shoes. 

413.  What  about  loose-fitting  shoes,  and  shoes  that  are  too  short? 

414.  Are  sharp-pointed  shoes  injurious? 

415.  What  do  you  say  ahout  gum  shoes  and  gum  coats? 

416.  What  about  "  extra  wraps  "  and  "  taking  cold  "  ? 

417.  What  about  the  clothing  of  females? 

418.  What  about  corsets  as  instruments  of  torture  ;  how  may  they 
be  worn  without  injury  ;  for  what  purpose  are  they  used  ? 

419.  What  is  the  inevitable  result  of  very  tight  lacing? 

420.  What  do  you  say  about  rubber  leggings  ? 

421.  Are  high-heeled  shoes  injurious? 

422.  How  should  we  suspend  our  clothing?  are  tight  waist-bands 
and  garters  injurious? 

423.  What  do  you  say  about  "shoulder-braces,"  and  how  can  we 
correct  "  stooping  shoulders  "  ? 


SLEEJL'.  339 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

SLEEP. 

A  great  philosopher  has  said,  "Take  from  man 
sleep  and  hope,  and  he  will  be  the  most  wretched 
being  on  earth."  Sleep  is  as  necessary  to  life  as 'is 
food.  Every  act  of  life,  every  thought,  word,  move- 
ment of  any  kind,  each  contraction  of  the  heart, 
every  performance  of  the  liver,  kidneys  and  all  other 
organs,  entails,  as  a  result  of  its  performance,  not 
only  the  consumption  of  tissue,  about  which  I  have 
told  you,  but  also  a  certain  amount  of  fatigue.  The 
body  becomes  exhausted  in  every  part  from  the  mere 
act  of  living.  The  combined  exhaustion  of  the  individ- 
ual parts  makes  the  general  fatigue  of  the  whole  body. 

The  exhausted  body  must  recuperate  ;  it  must 
rest  while  the  vital  organs  are  accumulating  a 
new  supply  of  force  to  enable  their  functions  to 
continue. 

During  sleep  every  function  of  the  body  is  carried 
on  less  rapidly.  All  the  voluntary  duties  and  per- 
formances of  life  are  absolutely  suspended.  Thought, 
motion,  sensation,  are  all  in  abeyance;  they  are  for 
the  time  being  dead,  so  that  but  little  vital  force  is 
required  to  keep  them  in  action. 

They   are   like  unto   a  horse   that    after  a  hard  run 


340  IIYOIENK. 

is  allowed  to  walk  slowly  along  a  shady  country  road 
that  he   may   gain   strength   for   another   run. 

These  organs  act  slowly,  generating  a  certain  amount 
of  vital  power,  a  small  portion  of  which  only  is  con- 
sumed in  giving  them  power  to  do  their  duty,  while 
the  remainder  is  stored  up  in  the  body  for  future 
use. 

After  awhile  a  sufficiency  of  this  force  is  accumu- 
lated; the  exhausted  organs  and  parts  are  refreshed, 
and  are  ready  to  again  resume  their  active  life ;  the 
sleeper  awakes  with  a  fresh  amount  of  vital  force  in 
every  portion  of  his  body,  and  is  once  more  ready 
to   take   up  his   active   daily  duties. 

Thus  you  understand  the  necessity  of  a  full  amount 
of  sleep.  When  exhausted  you  can,  by  an  exercise 
of  your  will  power  or  by  the  use  of  stimulants,  drive 
your  body  to  do  more  work,  but  you  will  do  so  at  the 
expense  of  your  health.  It  will  be  like  forcing  a 
jaded  horse  to  more  exertion  by  a  liberal  use  of  the 
whip  and  spur.  He  will-  go  on  because  you  force  him 
to  do  so ;  he  must  move,  since  a  will  power  stronger 
than  his  own  commands  it ;  but  he  will  suffer  in  health 
and  strength  for  this  unnatural  labor. 

So  is  it  with'  the  human  being.  A  man  of  strong 
will  can  labor  even  when  very  much  exhausted,  but 
the  strongest  man  will  surely,  sooner  or  later,  suffer 
for  this  abuse  of  his  organs. 

This  fact  cannot  be  too  strongly  noted,  since  over- 
work and  too  little  rest  and  sleep  are  the  greatest 
enemies  of  health  that  we  have  in  this  country.     When 


SLEEP.  ■        341 

an  energetic,  go-ahead  American  lias  any  labor  that 
he  desires  to  accomplish  in  a  given  time,  he  cares  not 
how  long  he  works,  he  is  ready  to  turn  night  into 
day,    and  will  not   rest   until  he   has  finished  his  task. 

This  hurry  and  want  of  rest  is  the  principal  cause 
of  the  many  premature  physical  wrecks  we  daily  meet 
with. 

An  imperative  law  of  nature  is  that  the  whole 
body  must  be  absolutely  rested  (such  rest  as  it  can 
receive  only  from  sleep)  for  a  certain  number  of  hours 
out  of  every  twenty-four. 

Of  course  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  an  absolute 
rule  as  to  just  how  much  sleep  a  person  requires ; 
but,  to  be  definite,  we  can  say  that  the  average  -  indi- 
vidual requires  eight  hours  sleep.  Some  can  do  with 
less  and  some  require  more,  but  this  can  be  stated  as 
the  average. 

It  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference,  as  many  suppose 
and  claim,  when  you  take  these  eight  hours.  There 
is  a  proper  time  for  everything,  and  no  other  time  can  be 
so  good.     This  is  true,  in  an  especial  manner,   of  sleep. 

Since  sleep  is  necessary  for  the  renovation  of  the 
exhausted  energies  of  the  body,  it  is  evident  that  the 
proper  time  for  sleej)  is  when  the  body  is  exhausted ; 
and  it  is  apparent  that  work  of  all  kinds  should  be 
suspended  when  this  fatigue  conies  on. 

*  To  establish  a  rule,  I  would  say  that  adults  should 
retire  at  ten  o'clock  and  rise  at  six;  growing  children 
require  more  sleep.  Of  course,  going  to  bed  at  nine 
or    ten    o'clock    will     interfere    with     many    duties     of 


342  HYGIENE. 

fashionable  society,  but  you  must  put  these  two  propo- 
sitions before  you  and  decide  which  to   adopt : 

1.  Become  ardent  members  of  fashionable  society, 
go  to  balls  and  parties ;  eat  late  suppers ;  go  to  bed 
at  two,  three  or  four  in  the  morning,  and  remain 
there  half  the  next  day ;  be  constantly  complaining 
of  headache,  dyspepsia,  backache,  and  die  young ;  or, 

2.  Eschew  fashionable  society,  living  in  accordance 
with  the  teachings  of  hygiene,  of  nature  and  of  experi- 
ence, enjoying  all  rational  pleasures  as  every  sensible 
person  does,  and  never  have  an  ache  or  a  pain ;  feel- 
ing always  well,  cheerful  and  happy;  never  experienc- 
ing either  the  heart-aches  or  the  unnatural  stimulation 
and  abnormal  depression  of  the  devotees  of  fashion ; 
and,  finally,  dying  old  men  or  women,  whose  memory 
will  be  loved  and  cherished  and  whose  examples  will 
be  held  up  for  the  guidance  of  future  generations, 
while  the  butterflies  of  fashion  pass  prematurely  away, 
as  little  noticed  and  regretted  and  as  soon  to  be  for- 
gotten  as   the   leaves   of  ihe   forest. 

You  must  choose  one  of  these  i;>ropositions,  an^  y. 
will  be  well  if  you  are  wise  enough  to  choose  the  sec- 
ond. You  may  not  think  so  now,  but  you  surely  will 
when  you  are  forty  years  old.  Fashionable  society  and 
good  sleep  arc  incompatible.  My  young  readers  may 
laugh  at  this  and  call  me  an  "old  fogy."  For  a 
while  I  may  seem  to  be  wrong,  but  when  the  man  of 
thirty-five  or  forty,  continually  complaining  that  his 
"liver  is  out  of  order"  suffering  all  the  time  from 
dyspepsia,    never  knowing   what    it   is   to   have  a  good 


SLEEP.  343 

night's  sleep,  sits  down  to  reflect ;  from  the  ashes  of 
the  past,  like  accusing  angels,  will  rise  up  a  long  list  of 
champagne  dinner  parties,  of  balls  and  dissipation,  of 
overwork  and  worry,  of  fashionable  assemblies  and  the 
like,  of  terrapin  suppers  at  three  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing. When  lying  awake  at  night,  restlessly  tossing, 
unable  to  sleep,  though  he  has  worked  hard  all  day 
and  retired  early,  these  visions  will  again  come  before 
him,  and  he  will  despairingly  cry  out:  "  Why  can  I 
not  sleep  as  I  once  could?  When  I  indulged  in  all 
these  good  things  I  used  to  sleep  like  a  top.''  Yes, 
my  friend,  but  you  were  then  abusing  yourself;  you 
were  making  unnatural  demands  upon  your  inheritance 
of  vital  force. 

Your  capital  was  then  large  and  could  meet  all 
demands  made  upon  it,  but  by  extravagance  you 
have  so  squandered  it  that  now  but  slight  exactions 
will  create  a  panic,  for  you  must  remember  that 
"  The  excesses  of  youth  are  drafts  upon  mature  age, 
payable  twenty  years  after  date." 

During  healthy  sleep  the  brain  is  in  an  a n antic 
state,  which  means  that  there  is  less  blood  in  the  brain 
than  when  awake. 

There  is  a  condition  called  stupor  or  coma  which 
simulates  yet  is  not  identical  in  any  material  particu- 
lar with  true  sleep.  When  an  intoxicated  man  falls 
across  the  bed  in  a  condition  of  drunken  uncon- 
scipusness  he  does  not  really  sleep,  though  he  seems 
to  do  so. 

Instead    of   having     less,     he    has    more    blood  than 


344  HYGIENE. 

usual  in  his  brain.  But  the  blood  is  poisoned;  it  is 
full  of  carbon,  which  has  such  an  evil  influence  on 
the  brain  as  to  interfere  with  all  its  duties  and  func- 
tions. 

If  you  were  to  sit  in  a  close  room  in  which  the  gas 
is  escaping,  but  not  lighted,  you  would  soon  become 
unconscious ;  you  would  not  be  asleep,  but  your  senses 
and  all  the  functions  of  your  brain  would  be  suspended 
by  the  poisonous  influence  of  the  carbon  in  the  escap- 
ing gas.  Your  condition  would  be  similar  to  that  of 
the  man  in  the  drunken  stupor. 

Alcohol  is  rich  in  carbon  and  acts  on  the  brain  just 
as  does  the  inhalation  of  gas.  To  prove  that  this  con- 
dition is  not  that  of  sound  sleep,  I  ask  you  to  reflect 
upon  two  facts.  Let  a  healthy  man,  immediately  upon 
rising  from  a  long  night's  refreshing  sleep,  drink  a 
very  large  quantity  of  whiskey.  At  first  he  will  be 
stimulated,  but  in  a  short  time,  though  he  has  done 
no  work  to  tire  him,  he  will  fall  into  the  condition  of 
apparent  sleep,  and  will  so  remain  until  the  carbon  of 
the  alcohol  has  been  removed  from  his  body.  If  you 
feel  his  head  you  will  find  it  to  be  warm  or  hot. 

It  would  be  impossible  for  the  desire  for  healthy 
and  natural  sleep  to  come  on  so  soon  after  several 
hours  had  been  passed  in  sleep,  and  it  would  be  like- 
wise impossible  for  the  head  to  feel  warm  unless  there 
was  a  great  deal  of  blood  in  it.  Hence,  you  see  that 
stupor  and  sleep  are  very  different  conditions ;  the 
former  is  an  unnatural  condition  of  unconsciousness 
caused  by  the  action  of  some  poison  on  the  brain ;    the 


SLEEP.  345 

latter  is  a  natural  condition  whereby  the  brain  and  the 
body  are  rested. 

When  you  are  sleepy  the  blood-vessels  in  your  brain 
are  contracting  and  driving  the  blood  out  of  this  organ 
that  it  may  become  anaemic.  Suppose  now,  by  the  force 
of  your  will  or  by  the  use  of  some  stimulant,  you  keep 
these  vessels  full  of  blood ;  see  what  happens.  If  you 
take  an  india-rubber  band,  and  alternately  stretch  and 
allow  it  to  contract,  its  contractible  power  will  remain 
intact  for  a  long  time.  But  put  this  same  band  around 
a  large  bundle  of  letters  and  thus  keep  it  constantly  on 
the  stretch ;  after  a  time  its  power  of  contraction  will 
be  almost  lost.  So  with  these  blood-vessels  of  the  brain. 
If  you  refuse  to  allow  them  to  contract  when  they  want 
to,  and  you  keep  them  on  the  stretch  abnormally  long, 
they  will  lose  their  ability  to  contract  and  will  remain 
permanently  dilated. 

So,  then,  you  can  see  why  sleeplessness  is  an  usual 
accompaniment  of  excessive  brain  work. 

The  essentials,  then,  for  good  sleep  are : 

1.  Regularity. 

2.  Exercise. 

3.  Good  digestion. 

4.  Freedom  from  anxiety  of  any  kind. 

5.  Abstention  from  overwork,  mental  or  physical. 

6.  To  sum  them  all  up.  An*  easy  and  equable  men- 
tal condition  that  cannot  exist  without  all  the  six  other 
conditions. 


340  HYGIENE. 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

424.  What  has  been  said  of  sleep  by  a  great  philosopher  ? 

425.  Is  sleep  a  necessity  of  life  ? 

426.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  vital  organs  during  sleep? 

427.  If  by  the  exercise  of  your  will  you  deprive  yourself  of  sleep, 
what  will  be  the  result? 

428.  What  are  the  greatest  enemies  of  health  in  this  country  ? 

429.  What  is  the  average  requisite  amount  of  sleep  ? 

430.  What  is  the  proper  time  for  sleep  ? 

431.  What  do  you  say  of  fashionable  society  and  sleep,  and  what 
two  propositions  are  presented  for  your  choice  ? 

432.  What  do  you  say  of  the  excesses  of  youth  ? 

433.  What  is  the  condition  of  the  brain  during  sleep  ? 

434.  What  is  stupor  or  coma  ? 

435.  What  is  the  apparent  sleep  of  a  drunken  man  ? 

436.  What  is  the  effect  of  carbon  upon  the  brain  ? 

437.  If  when  sleepy  you  resort  to  stimulants  to  keep  awake,  what 
will  happen  ? 

438.  What  are  the  essentials  for  good  sleep  ? 


STIMULANTS — C0jStDIMEXTS,    ETC.  347 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 
STIMULANTS— CONDIMENTS,  ETC. 

I  approach  this  subject  reluctantly,  because  it  is 
the  one  subject  in  the  whole  domain  of  science  upon 
which  scientific  knowledge  does  not  arbitrate;  it  is 
the  one  scientific  subject  in  the  discussion  of  which 
science  is  dominated  by  prejudice.  Those  who  want  to 
use  stimulants  claim  that  they  are  beneficial;  those 
who  are  opposed  to  their  use  unqualifiedly  condemn 
them,  and  will  listen  to  nothing  in  their  favor. 

I  must  preface  my  discussion  of  this  subject  by 
claiming  that  I  am  entirely  unprejudiced  on  the  sub- 
ject. I  have  passed  through  the  various  stages  of  this 
question ;  I  have  had  no  sympathy  at  all  with  pro- 
hibition ;  then  I  was  an  ardent  prohibitionist ;  now  I 
have  reached  that  position  where  though  I  believe  that 
stimulants  are  unnecessary  to  health  and  that  human- 
ity would  be  better  off  without  them,  yet  I  view  the 
question  without  in'ejudice. 

Am  I  fickle  in  thus  changing  my  views  ?  No ; 
while  I  was  ruled  by  prejudice  I  was  fickle  and 
jumped  from  one  extreme  to  the  other.  Now  I  am 
firmly  landed  on  the  shore  of  scientific  truth. 

If  this  book  has  no  other  merit,  I  can  honestly 
claim  that  it  is  truthful,  and  I  strongly  feel  the  neces- 


348  HYGIENE. 

sity  of  telling  the  truth  about  stimulants,  because  I 
am  sorry  that  most  of  the  text-books  for  schools 
handle  the  question  of  stimulants  in  an  unscientific  and 
prejudiced  manner. 

I  will  not  go  deeply  into  this  subject,  contenting 
myself  by  merely  stating  scientific  truths.  I  have  headed 
this  chapter  stimulants,  because  this  word  is  more 
comprehensive  than  ' '  alcohol  and  narcotics, ' '  the 
heading  usually  given  to  chapters  on  this  subject. 

Now,  what  do  I  mean  by  stimulants?  By  stimu- 
lants I  mean  a  group  or  class  of  articles  which,  though 
not  nourishing  the  human  body,  yet  impart  to  its 
various  functions  a  temporary  activity  greatly  in  excess 
of  that  usually  enjoyed  by  them,  to  be  followed  by 
a  period  of  depression  in  proportion  to  the  previous 
abnormal  activity. 

Alcohol  is  not  the  only  stimulant;  but,  with  coffee 
and  tea,  it  is  the  only  one  that  is  in  common  use  as 
a  beverage  in  this  country.  In  other  countries  where 
alcohol  is  not  used  as  a  beverage,  some  other  stimulant 
takes  its  place. 

Coffee  is  used  by  2,000,000  persons. 

Paraguay  tea  is  used  by  10,000,000  persons. 

Coca  is  used  by  10,000,000  persons. 

Chicory,  pure  or  mixed  with  coffee,  by  40,000,000 
persons. 

Cocoa,  either  as  chocolate  or  in  some  other  form,  by 
50,000,000  persons. 

Haschisch  is  eaten  and  smoked  by  300,000,000  per- 
sons. 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  349 

Opium  by  400,000,000  persons. 

Chinese  tea  is  drunk  by  500,000,000  persons. 

All  the  known  nations  of  the  world  are  addicted 
to  the  use  of  tobacco,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  smoke, 
others   by  snuffing  and  chewing. 

The  following  list  of  distilled  spirits  used  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  world  will  give  some  idea  of  the  uni- 
versality of  their  use : 

Nations  by  whom  employed.  Name.  Obtained  from 

Hindus,  Malays,  etc.      .      .  Arrack  Rice  or  Areca-nut. 

Greeks,  Turks,  etc.      .      .  Raki  Rice. 

Hindus Toddy  Cocoanut. 

Hindus  (Mahrattas)    .      .  Bojah  Eleusine  Corocana. 

Hindus  (Sikkim)      .      .     .  Murwa  Eleusine  Corocana. 

Chinese Samshoo  Rice. 

Japanese Sacie  

Pacific  Islanders      .     .      .  Kawa  Macropiper. 

Mexicans Pulque  Agave. 

.South  Americans     .     .      .  Chica  Maize. 

Tartars Koumiss  Mare's  milk. 

Russians  and  Poles.     .      .  Voldki  Potatoes. 

Abyssinians      .     .     .  Ta!ah  Millet. 

From  time  immemorial  humanity  has  craved  an  artifi- 
cial stimulant  or  an  artificial  sedative,  and  will  con- 
tinue so  to  crave  to  the  end.  From  time  immemorial 
humanity  has  been  guilty  of  sin,  and  will  continue  to 
be  so  to  the  end ;  but  neither  does  the  universal  use 
of  stimulants  and  narcotics  prove  that  they  are  benefi- 
cial to  the  body,  nor  does  the  universality  of  sin 
prove    that    it    is   beneficial    to   the   soul ;  but   the   uni- 


350  HYGIENE. 

versal  use  of  the  one  and  the  universal  practice  of 
the  other  make  it  obvious  to  my  mind  that 
neither  will   ever  be   totally   eradicated. 

With  these  preliminary  remarks,  we  proceed  to 
the  discussion  of  alcohol,  as  this  is  the  stimulant  in 
common  use  in  our  own  country. 

Alcohol  is  a  combination  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  and  is  always  the  result  of  fermentation  of  sub- 
stances containing  sugar,  which  is  mainly  converted  by 
this  process  into  carbonic  acid  and  alcohol. 

In  his  standard  work  on  hygiene,  Dr.  E.  A.  Parkes 
thus  sums  up  his  conclusions  on  alcohol :  ' '  The  facts 
now  stated  make  it  difficult  to  avoid  the  conclusion 
that  the  food  value  of  alcohol  has  been  much  over- 
rated. It  does  not  appear  possible,  at  present,  to  con- 
demn alcohol  altogether  as  an  article  of  diet  in 
health ;  or,  to  prove  that  it  is  invariably  hurtful,  as 
some  have  attempted  to  do.  It  produces  effects  which 
are  often  useful  in  disease  and  sometimes  desirable 
in  health,  but  in  health  it  is  certainly  not  a  necessity, 
and  many  persons  are  much  better  without  it.  As  now 
used  by  mankind  (at  least  in  our  own  and  many  other 
countries)  it  is  infinitely  more  poioerful  for  evil  than 
for  good.  As  a  matter  of  public  health,  it  is  most 
important  that  the  medical  profession  should  throw  its 
great  influence  into  the  scale  of  moderation;  should 
explain  the  limit  of  the  useful  power,  and  show  how 
easily  the  line  is  passed  which  carries  us  from  the 
region  of  safety  into  danger,  when  alcohol  is  taken  as 
a  common  article  of  food."     Remember  that  this  quota- 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  351 

tion  is  from  the  best  text-book  on  hygiene  that  has 
ever  been  written,  and  that  it  contains  the  conclu- 
sions on  the  subject  of  a  man  whose  whole  life  was 
devoted   to   the   consideration   of   the   subject. 

I  have  made  the  quotation  because  I  could  not 
find  other  words  to  express  so  well  the  true  scien- 
tific  aspect  of  the   subject. 

Read  this  quotation  carefully  and  ponder  over 
the  words  that  I  have  italicized,  for  therein  will  be 
found  the  essence  of  the  scientific  aspect  of  this 
question. 

Very  few  persons  drink  pure  alcohol;  it  is  nearly 
always  consumed  in  the  shape  of  a  manufactured  wine 
or  liquor.  If  this  wine  or  liquor  be  pure  and  unadul- 
terated, the  alcohol  is  the  active  principle,  and  the  only 
one  with  which  we  have  here  to  do.  Hence,  it  will  be 
interesting  to  know  about  the  amount  of  alcohol  that 
is  contained  in  the  various  wines  and  liquors.  I 
reproduce  the  following  table  from  Dr.  W.  S.  Green- 
field's work   on  alcohol: 


Whiskey- 

50  to  60  per  cent. 

Brandy 

.       50  to  60 

u 

Rum         . 

60  to  77 

«« 

Gin       ... 

.      49  to  60 

a 

Port  Wine  (strongest) 

25 

it 

Port  Wine  (ordinary) 

23 

<( 

Port  Wine  (weakest) 

16.5 

u 

Madeira 

16  to  22 

a 

Sherry  (strongest) 

25 

a 

Sherry  (weakest) 

16 

tt 

352 


HYGIENE. 

Burgundy- 

10  to  14  per  cent 

Claret  (strongest  Bordeaux) 

17       ' 

Claret  (average) 

15       < 

Claret  (vin  ordinaire) 

8  to    9       < 

Champagne 

5  to  13 

Hock 

9  to  12 

Sauterne    .... 

14       < 

Cider*           .... 

5  to  10       ' 

Ale  (Burton)     . 

9      ' 

Ale  (ordinary) 

3  to  5 

Perry         .... 

7       ' 

Brown  Stout          .         .         . 

6  to   7       ' 

London  Porter 

4.2       ' 

London  Small  Beer 

1.28       ' 

It  is  not  the  use  but  the  abuse  of  alcohol  that  is 
to  be  condemned;  if  it  could  be  used  properly  no  one 
would  argue  against  it,  but  it  seems  to  be  an  undeni- 
able fact  that,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  use  in- 
evitably leads  to  the  abuse;  and  such  being  the  case 
its  use  becomes  dangerous.  There  undoubtedly  are  some 
persons  who  can  use  alcohol  as  it  should  be  used,  and 
who  in  consequence  are  not  injured  thereby,  even 
though  they  may  not  be  benefited;  but  the  number 
of  such  persons  is  limited,  and  no  one  can  tell  before- 
hand whether  he  possesses  the  qualifications  that  will 
enable  him  to  resist  carrying  the  use  of  alcohol  to 
the  extent  of  abuse.  The  only  way  to  make  abso- 
lutely sure  of  avoiding  abuse  of  alcohol  is  not  to  use 
it  at  all. 

*  New  cider  contains  but  little  or  no  alcohol,  but  as  it  stands  it  ferments  and 
alcohol  is  generated  by  this  fermentation. 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  353 

I  think  it  would  be  well  if  the  public  could  be 
brought  to  regard  alcohol  rather  as  a  drug  than  as  a 
beverage.  We  have  already  seen  that  opium  is  in 
common  use  by  400,000,000,  and  haschisch  by  300,000,- 
000  persons ;  thus  nearly  one-half  the  population  of  the 
world  have  in  common  use  two  articles  which,  so  used, 
are  more  or  less  injurious.  These  same  two  articles 
(opium  and  haschisch)  are  regarded  as  drugs  in  this 
country.  They  are  used  (except  in  rare  cases)  only 
when  prescribed  by  a  physician,  and  are  thus  pro- 
ductive only  of  good. 

So  would  it  be  with  alcohol  if  it  were  regarded 
as  a  drug  ;  if  it  were  used  only,  as  other  drugs 
are,  when  prescribed  by  a'  physician,  it  would 
be  productive  only  of  good,  because  there  .  can  be 
no  question  but  that  alcohol  is  a  very  valuable 
drug. 

It  is  the  universality  of  the  use  of  alcohol  as  a 
beverage  that  makes  it  so  dangerous.  It  is  a  fact, 
and  a  very  peculiar  one,  that  a  person  who  is  using 
alcohol  to  excess  never  seems  to  realize  that  he  is 
doing  so,  or  if  he  does  within  himself  so  realize  he 
rarely  admits  it. 

How  often  do  you  hear  a  person  exclaim  "  I  have 
eaten  too  much  dinner;  "  how  rarely  do  you  hear  a 
person  exclaim  ' '  I  have  drunk  too  much  alcohol !  ' ' 
Understanding,  as  we  now  do,  that  it  is  the  abuse  of 
alcohol  that  is  dangerous,  and  that  any  one  who  uses 
it  at  all  is  in  very  great  danger  of  falling  into  this 
abuse,   let  us  see  what  it  does. 


354  HYGIENE. 

The  Abuse  of  Alcohol. 

It  is  not  the  man  who  occasionally  gets  drunk  and 
then  passes  a  long  period  of  total  abstinence  who  does 
himself  the  most  harm ;  though  the  harm  that  is  thus 
done  is  great  enough.  The  habitual  drinking  of  alco- 
hol, though  it  may  never  once  be  carried  to  the  point 
of  intoxication,  is   the  most  dangerous  form  of   its   use. 

Do  not  misconstrue  me  into  saying  that  getting 
drunk  occasionally  is  not  injurious.  It  is  very  injuri- 
ous, but  it  is  not  so  insidious  as  "constant  tippling," 
because,  in  the  first  instance,  the  system  has  the 
period  of  abstinence  in  which  to  rid  itself  of  the  alco- 
hol ;  while  in  the  latter  case,  the  organs  and  parts  are 
continually  subject  to  the  action  of  alcohol,  even 
though  this  action  be  not,  at  any  one  time,  so  pro- 
found as  to  cause  intoxication  or  drunkenness. 

When  we  come  to  discuss  the  effects  of  the  abuse  of 
alcohol,  I  am  as  rabid  as  the  most  ardent  prohibitionist 
could  desire.  That  the  abuse  of  alcohol  causes  more 
disease  and  kills  more  persons  than  any  other  dozen 
causes,  I  am  perfectly  satisfied.  There  is  no  organ  or 
part  of  the  body  that  is  not  injuriously  affected  by 
the  abuse  of  alcohol. 

Influence  of  Alcohol  on  the  Organs. 

You  remember  how  the  cell  is  the  unit  of  forma- 
tion of  the  human  body ;  alcohol  restrains  the  rapid 
growth  of  young  cells ;  hence  you  see  that  its  bane- 
ful effects  reach  down  even  to  the  most  elementary 
conditions  and  states  of  the  body. 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  355 

Let  us  start  where  alcohol  begins  its  journey,  and 
follow  it  from  the  mouth  into  the  stomach.  What  does 
it  do  there?  You  all  know,  who  have  used  it,  that 
alcohol  is  irritating;  it  bites  the  mouth  and  throat.  It 
does  precisely  the  same  thing  with  the  delicate  coating 
of  the  stomach ;  like  mustard  applied  to  the  skin,  it 
causes  an  extra  amount  of  blood  to  flow  into  the  ves- 
sels of  the  lining  of  tne  stomach.  It  is  this  excess  of 
blood  that  causes  the  sensation  of  warmth  in  the  stomach 
produced  by  drinking  a  glass  of  spirits. 

All  through  this  work  I  am  trying  to  impress  upon 
you  the  important  fact  that  any  kind  of  excess  is 
injurious,  so  this  excessive  amount  of  blood  in  your 
stomach  will  work  you  harm.  At  first  this  condition 
is  only  temporary,  but  by  repeated  use  of  the  agent  a 
chronic  condition  of  engorgement  is  set  up :  that  is  to 
say,  there  is  always  loo  much  blood  in  the  walls  of  the 
stomach.  This  irritation  also  causes  the  gastric  juice 
(which  is  the  chemical  agent  provided  by  the  walls  of 
the  stomach  to  dissolve  and  digest  our  food)  to  be 
poured  into  the  cavity  of  the  stomach  in  excessive 
quantity.  Excess  again,  mind  you!  A  portion  of  this 
juice  remains  in  the  stomach  after  all  the  food  lias  been 
digested,  and,  being  idle,  looks  around  for  something 
to  do,  and  actually  turns  upon  the  coats  of  the 
stomach  and  irritates  and  injures  them.  Again,  it  is 
a  well-established  physiological  fact,  and  one  which 
common  sense  will  make  apparent  to  all,  that  when 
vessels  are  filled  to  their  utmost  extent,  they  are  inca- 
pable  of    holding    any   more.      Hence    these    vessels    in 


356  HYGIENE. 

the  walls  of  tlie  stomach  which,  properly  acting, 
should  take  up  the  products  of  digestion  and  carry 
them  to  nourish  the  system  at  large,  are  so  engorged 
with  blood  as  to  be  unable  to  do  so.  As  a  natural  con- 
sequence, a  large  portion  of  that  which  was  intended 
to  repair  the  wear  and  tear  of  our  bodies  cannot  be 
absorbed,  and  much  valuable  nourishment  is  thus  unwill- 
ingly  forced  out  of  our  stomachs  and  wasted.  Let  me 
warn  you  that  your  feelings  are  no  indication  of  the 
amount  of  damage  done  to  the  stomach,  as  the  follow- 
ing interesting  case  will  demonstrate : 
*  Some  years  ago  a  man  called  Alexis  St.  Martin  re- 
ceived an  injury  to  his  abdomen,  which  resulted  in  a 
permanent  opening  from  the  exterior  of  the  body  to  his 
stomach,  by  means  of  which  all  the  phenomena  occur- 
ring in  that  organ  could  be  observed  by  an  outsider. 
Dr.  Beaumont  has  put  on  record  that  after  St.  Martin 
had  freely  used  ardent  spirits  for  eight  or  ten  days,  he 
could  perceive  his  stomach  to  be  in  a  very  unhealthy 
condition,  the  surface  of  it  being  red  and  spotted  with 
ulcers,  the  gastric  fluids  were  poor  in  quality  and  mixed 
with  a  thick,  ropy,  gluey  material,  while  from  the  little 
ulcers  a  foul  matter,  mixed  with  blood,  resembling  that 
which  passes  from  the  bowels  in  dysentery,  was  given 
out.  And  yet,  he  notes  that  ' '  St.  Martin  complains  of 
no  pain,  nor  shows  symptoms  of  general  indisposition  ; 
says  lie  feels  well,  and  has  a  good  appetite. ,"  He  adds 
that  '■'■the  free  use  of  ardent  spirits,  wine,  beer,  or  any 
intoxicating  liquor,  when  continued  for  some  days,  lias 
invariably  produced  these  morbid  changes.'''' 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  357 

Stop  a  minute  and  reflect  what  alcohol  has  already 
done,  before  it  has  fairly  entered  your  system,  because 
your  stomach,  being  but  a  prolongation  of  your  mouth 
and  throat,  is  really  on  the  outside  of  your  body 
proper.  Having  done  all  the  harm  it  could  in  the 
stomach,  the  alcohol  is  absorbed  from  this  organ  and 
fairly  starts  on  its  journey  of  destruction. 

Almost  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning  it  rushes  to 
the  brain,  for  which  organ  it  seems  to  have  a  peculiar 
love,  like  the  affection  of  a  false  friend  who  seeks 
your  company  but  to  do  you  harm.  Most  of  its 
effects  on  this  organ  are  so  well  known  to  all  that  'it 
is  unnecessary  for  me  to  detail  them ;  I  will,  however, 
tell  you  of  a  few,  about  which,  most  likely,  you  are 
ignorant.  Many  persons  die  of  apoplexy.  Apoplexy  is 
a  rupture  or  giving  way  of  a  blood  vessel  in  the 
brain,  allowing  the  escape  of  blood  into  the  tissue  of 
this  organ.  It  will  seem  very  plain  when  I  tell  you 
that  this  rupture  occurs  at  a  point  in  a  vessel  where 
it  is  abnormally  weak,  hence  unable  to  withstand  the 
pressure  of  the  current  of  blood  forced  against  it  by 
the  powerfully  acting  heart.  It  will  appear  equally 
clear  when  I  tell  you  that  the  constant  and  long  con- 
tinued use  of  alcohol  causes  an  excessive  development 
and  retention  of  fat  in  the  system,  and  that  particles 
of  this  fat,  carried  through  the  system  and  deposited 
in  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the  brain,  taking 
the  place  of  the  naturally  strong  and  resisting  wall, 
will  render  it  weak.  So,  you  see  one  of  the  natural 
causes    of    death    accounted    for    by  alcohol.     I   do   not 


358  HYGIENE. 

mean  tliat  all  cases  of  apoplexy  are  due  to  the  use  of 
alcohol,  but  many  of  them  are. 

Again ;  alcohol  is,  as  I  have  said,  at  first  stimulating 
to  the  brain ;  it  causes  an  excess  of  blood  to  flow  into 
it,  and  by  constant  repetition  the  vessels  become  per- 
manently enlarged,  exerting  an  injurious  pressure  on 
the  brain  tissue  and  interfering  with  its  functions. 
When  the  stupor  comes  on,  the  vessels  are  filled  with 
a  dark,  unhealthy  and  poisoned  blood,  and  so  this 
most  important  organ  receives  poisoned  food.  You 
must  remember  that  all  your  tissues  and  organs  are 
fed  from  the  blood.  When  the  pathologist  wishes  to 
preserve  a  brain  for  future  investigation,  he  places  it 
in  alcohol,  which  has  the  effect  of  hardening  it;  and 
when  death  occurs  from  alcoholic  poisoning,  the  sub- 
stance of  the  brain  is  usually  white  and  firm,  as  though 
it  had  been  preserved  in  alcohol.  Now,  reasoning  from 
these  facts,  can  any  one  say  that  alcohol  may  not 
produce  the  same  effect  on  the  living  brain ;  and  in 
pity's  name,  tell  me,  who  can  live  and  work  properly 
with  a  tough  and  hardened  brain? 

Moreover,  it  is  a  well  established  fact  that  all 
diseases  of  the  brain  which  are  not  purely  of  a  con- 
stitutional character  (that  is  to  say,  diseases  in  which 
the  whole  system  is  involved,)  are  much  more  com- 
mon among  habitual  drinkers  than  among  the  temper- 
ate. Every  one  has  heard  of,  and  even  the  greatest 
drinkers  have  a  terrible  dread  of,  delirium  tremens, 
but  let.  me  tell  you  that  a  form  of  mental  disorder  of 
the    same    character,    only    somewhat     less    in    degree, 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  359 

marked  by  trembling  of  the  hands  and  feet,  and 
occasional  illusions,  will  sometimes  afflict  the  habitually 
moderate  drinker,  who  has  never  in  his  life  reached 
the  point  of  intoxication.  In  this  connection,  I  will 
tell  you  something  startling,  that  will  make  you  open 
your  eyes  with  wonder :  Statistics,  carefully  kept,  tell 
us,  beyond  doubt,  that  from  one-third  to  one-half  of 
the  cases  of  insanity  confined  in  asylums  are  caused 
directly  or  indirectly  by  intemperance. 

Let  us  go  back  to  the  stomach,  and  follow  the  alco- 
hol from  there  into  the  lungs,  which  it  reaches  by 
means  of  the  circulation.  The  blood  in  circulating 
throughout  the  system  not  only  gives  nourishment  to 
the  various  organs  and  tissues,  but  it  also  picks  up  as 
it  goes  along  the  dead  particles  which  are  no  longer  of 
any  use,  and  carries  them  to  the  different  organs  whose 
function  it  is  to  eliminate  them  from  the  blood  and 
throw  them  out  of  the  body.  Prominent  among  these 
organs  are  the  lungs.  The  blood  charged  with  dead 
material  rushes  into  them,  where  it  is  purified,  as  it 
were,  by  fire;  the  oxygen  in  the  air  which  we  take  into 
our  lungs  causing  a  combustion  or  burning  to  take 
place  (by  the  union  of  the  oxygen  with  the  carbon  of 
the  dead  tissue)  which  removes  from  the  blood  many 
of  its  dead  and  decayed  elements  (which  are  thrown 
out  in  expiration)  and  renders  it  once  more  pure  and 
fit  to  start  again  on  its  journey  of  nourishment.  Sup- 
pose this  blood,  when  passing  through  the  walls  of  the 
stomach,  has  taken  up  a  quantity  of  alcohol  and  car- 
ries it  into   the  lungs;    see   what   will   occur:     Alcohol 


360  HYGIENE. 

loves  oxygen ;  it  greedily  rushes  forward  and  seizes  it 
all,  which  it  appropriates  to  its  own  uses;  so  you  can 
anticipate  what  now  happens.  The  decayed  tissue  in 
the  blood  finding  no  oxygen  to  remove  it,  must  remain 
where  it  is,  hence  the  poor  blood  leaves  the  lungs  as 
impure  and  poisoned  as  it  came,  and  goes  its  weary 
rounds  again,  carrying  poisoned  blood  to  all  the  organs 
of  the  body  and  contaminating  everything  which  it 
touches.  Here  really  lies  one  of  the  most  evil  effects 
of  alcohol ;  anyone  can  readily  understand  how 
utterly  impossible  it  will  be  for  his  organs  to  .hold 
together  and  properly  perform  their  delicate  and  varied 
functions  when  nourished  so  poorly.  We  realize  how 
necessary  it  is  to  eat  plenty  of  nourishing  food  to  sus- 
tain life,  but  we  do  not  stop  to  think  that  this  food 
which  we  take  is  rendered  unfit  to  fulfil  its  mission  in 
the  blood  by  the  presence  of  this  contaminating  alco- 
hol. To  realize  what  I  have  said,  notice  how  soon  the 
smell  of  alcohol  can  be  detected  in  the  breath  after  it 
has  been  taken  into  an  empty  stomach  (the  vessels 
absorb  more  rapidly  when  the  stomach  is  empty),  thus 
showing  its  presence  in  the  lungs,  while  its  great  affin- 
ity for  the  oxygen  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  very 
rich  in  carbon,  and  that  these  two  elements  have  a 
great  attraction  for  each  other. 

Going  back  again  to  the  stomach,  our  starting  point, 
let  us  follow  alcohol  from  there  into  the  liver,  that 
large  and  important  organ.  Dr.  Carpenter,  already 
quoted,  says,  "  That  habitual  excess  in  the  use  of 
■alcoholic  liquors  must  have  a  direct  tendency  to  pro- 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  3G1 

duce  certain  diseases  of  the  liver,  will  be  questioned 
by  no  one  who  considers  their  mode  of  introduction 
into  the  system,  and  their  influence  on  the  condi- 
tion of  the  blood.^  At  first  alcohol  causes  a  conges- 
tion, an  excess  of  blood  in  the  liver  (as  everywhere 
else  it  does).  This  is  followed  by  a  contraction, 
a  diminution  in  size  and  an  alteration  of  its  struc- 
ture. What  are  the  results  ?  They  are  obvious. 
The  liver  is  unable  to  remove  its  quota  of  use- 
less elements  from  the  blood,  while  the  poor  blood  is 
obliged  to  retain  still  more  poison.  It  is  one  of  the 
functions  of  the  liver  to  remove  from  the  blood  some 
of  the  same  ingredients  which  are  thrown  out  in  expi- 
ration from  the  lungs ;  now,  as  I  have  shown  you, 
the  lungs  cannot  act  properly  when  alcohol  contami- 
nates them,  so  extra  work  is  thrown  upon  the  liver, 
which  eventually  becomes  fatigued  from  over-exertion 
and  succumbs  to  disease.  The  liver  contracting  down 
on  the  large  blood-vessels  that  circulate  through  it, 
interferes  with  the  free  passage  of  that  fluid,  and 
damming  it  up,  so  to  speak,  exerts  a  backward  pres- 
sure. It  is  opposed  by  the  onward  pressure  of  the 
heart's  action,  and  between  the  two  forces  the  watery 
constituents  of  the  blood  are  forced  slowly  out  through 
the  porous  walls  of  the  vessels,  and  we  have  in  time 
abdominal  dropsy,  and  accumulation  of  water  in  the 
cavity  of  the  belly.  Another  natural  cause  of  death 
accounted  for  by  alcohol.  Still  further,  this  excessive 
retention  of  fat,  to  which  I  have  referred,  will  cause 
more    trouble.     Carried    in    the    circulation,    it  seeks  a 


362  HYGIENE. 

place  to  rest;  a  particle  settles  in  the  strong,  muscu- 
lar wall  of  the  heart,  then  another,  and  another,  until 
ultimately  we  have  a  fatty  heart,  which,  being  much 
weakened  by  the  presence  of  this  poor  substitute  for 
its  former  strong  and  stout  muscular  fibre,  becomes 
unable  to  effectually  resist  the  backward  pressure  of 
the  mass  of  blood  which  it  endeavors  to  force  out  of 
its  cavities  (a  pressure  very  great  indeed),  and  all  of 
a  sudden  it  ruptures  or  gives  way  in  some  weak  spot, 
just  as  the  vessel  in  the  brain  does,  and  instant 
death  ensues.  Or  we  may  have  the  slower  death -pro- 
duced so  often  by  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart. 
Still  further,  when  by  the  use  of  alcohol  we  cause 
the  retention  of  too  much  fat  in  the  system,  this 
fat  must  deposit  somewhere.  Hence,  we  can  and  do 
have  at  times  fatty  degeneration  of  any  or  every 
organ  in  the  body.  Fatty  degeneration  of  an  organ, 
of  which  you  hear  so  much,  means  nothing  more  nor 
less  than  the  substitution  of  fat  for  the  normal  tis- 
sue of  an  organ.  Each  organ  must  possess  its  own 
peculiar  tissue  in  order  that  it  may  perform  its  own 
peculiar  function,  and  fat  cannot  perform  any  of  these 
functions.  Does  it  not,  therefore,  seem  as  plain  as 
daylight  that  when,  instead  of  its  natural  tissue,  fat 
enters  too  largely  into  the  composition  of  an  organ, 
such  organ  cannot  properly  do  its  duty?  In  such 
cases  life  must  be  shortened,  since  its  prolongation  is 
dependent  upon  the  integrity  not  of  one  or  two,  but 
of  all  the   organs. 

The    effects    of    alcohol    on   the   nervous  system   are 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  363 

all  too  manifest  in  the  trembling  of  the  drunkard 
and  the  unsteady  arm  and  hands  of  the  moderate 
drinker.  What  does  it  do  here  ?  As  elsewhere,  it 
congests  the  nervous  centres,  causes  them  to  receive 
poor  nourishment,  probably  hardens  their  tisssue,  and 
hence  interferes  with  their  proper  functions.  Hum- 
boldt has  proved  by  experiment  that  when  a  nerve  is 
immersed  in  alcohol  its  excitability,  that  is  to  say,  its 
life,  was  at  first  increased,  but  if  left  for  some  time 
in  this  fluid  it  was  completely  exhausted. 

I  might  go  on  indefinitely,  as  long  as  the  list  of 
human  organs  would  last,  and  point  out  to  you  the  bad 
effects  of  alcohol  on  each  of  them.  But  do  you  not 
think  I  have  said  enough  to  show  you  that  the  use  of 
this  article  is,  to  say  the  least,  dangerous?  For  the 
truth  of  my  statements  I  can  refer  you,  without  fear 
of  contradiction,  to  any  intelligent  physician. 

"How  often  do  you  hear  a  man  say,  "I  do  not  drink 
whiskey.  I  confine  myself  to  beer."  Deluded  indi- 
vidual, let  me  tell  you  that  you  make  a  distinction  with 
hardly  a  difference,  and  that  only  a  difference  of  quan- 
tity and  not  of  kind.  The  deleterious  agent,  alcohol, 
exists  in  beer  as  well  as  in  whiskey,  and  if  you  drink 
enough  of  it  you  will  take  into  your  system  just  as  much 
alcohol.  Many  men  who  confine  themselves  to  the  use 
of  beer  and  malt  liquors  seem  to  enjoy  exceptionally 
good  health  and  to  be  capable  of  great  physical  exer- 
tion; but  watch  them  for  a  time,  and  you  will  find  that 
they  break  down  prematurely.  Experience  proves  thai 
they   succumb    much    mom    readily   1<>    diseases    of    an 


364  HYGIENE. 

inflammatory  nature,  because  the  tone  of  the  system  has 
been  so  lowered  that  they  lack  vital  strength  to  with- 
stand them.  As  an  illustration  of  this  fact,  let  me 
quote  from  Dr.  Carpenter  (page  67) :  ' '  The  nurses  in 
the  cholera  hospital  at  Manchester  were  at  first  worked 
six  hours  (during  an  epidemic),  and  allowed  to  go  home 
the  other  six,  and  the  mortality  was  so  great  among 
them  that  there  were  fears  of  the  failure  of  the  supply. 
It  was  found,  however,  that  they  were  much  given  to 
alcoholic  potations  during  their  leisure  hours ;  and  they 
were  therefore  confined  to  the  hospital,  and  debarred 
from  obtaining  more  than  a  small  allowance  of  alcoholic 
drink,  after  which  not  a  single  fresh  case  occurred 
among  them.'''' 

The  Creator  of  the  world  has  given  us  a  most  beau- 
tiful place  to  reside  in,  and  has  surrounded  us  with 
numerous  sources  of  pleasure  and  amusement.  At  the 
same  time,  as  though  to  remind  us  that  unalloyed  hap- 
piness is  not  intended  for  us  here,  and  to  make  us  aspire 
to  a  higher  existence,  He  has  placed  or  permitted  to 
exist  among  us  certain  evils,  which,  continually  before 
us,  make  us  yearn  for  a  higher  and  a  purer  life,  where 
we  fondly  hope  they  will  be  unknown.  Prominent 
among  these  evils  I  would  place  alcohol.  Reasoning 
from  the  experience  of  past  centuries,  I  am  forced  to 
think  that  as  long  as  human  life  lasts,  so  long  will  our 
complete  happiness  be  interfered  with  by  the  existence 
of  alcohol  or  some  similar  poison.  Wise  legislation, 
moral  suasion  and  example,  may  serve,  as  they  no  doubt 
do,  to  keep  its  use  within  certain  bounds,  but  will  never 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  305 

entirely  eradicate  it.  Hence,  I  deem  it  wise,  in  the 
remaining  portion  of  this  chapter,  to  call  medical  re- 
search and  experience  to  my  aid  in  pointing  out  to  you 
the  least  hurtful  use  of  alcohol. 

In  the  first  place,  let  me  caution  young  persons  to 
beware  of  the  first  glass.  Like  all  the  unnecessary 
things  in  this  world,  before  we  use  alcohol  we  care 
but  little  or  nothing  for  it;  but  with  most  persons 
the  first  drink  creates  a  thirst  for  the  second,  and  in 
a  short  time  is  established  a  habit  most  difficult  to 
break.  Therefore,  young  persons,  beware,  and  think 
well  before  you  take  the  first  drop.  Many  young 
men,  but  little  more  than  boys,  seem  to  think  that  it 
makes  men  of  them  to  drink,  and  so  they  commence 
this  habit,  through  a  false  idea  of  manliness,  when 
they  really  have  no  desire  for  alcohol.  Let  them 
remember  that  in  many  cases  instead  of  making  men 
it  makes  beasts  and  fools  of  them.  Occasionally,  but 
very  rarely,  I  have  heard  men  advanced  into  the  mid- 
dle stage  of  life  declare  that  they  had  never  tasted 
alcohol  in  their  lives.  It  was  a  pleasure  to  note  with 
what  an  expression  of  pride  and  self-contentment  they 
made  this  statement ;  and  they  had  reason  to  congratu- 
late themselves,  for  they  had  avoided  an  evil  that  but 
few  men  in  a  million  ever  escarje. 

Think,  young  man,  when  at  seventeen  you  are 
tempted  to  take  your  first  glass  of  spirits,  how  proud 
and  happy  you  will  feel  at  forty,  if  you  can  truthfully 
deny  all  knowledge  of  the  taste  of  alcohol. 

Let    me    warn    you    all,    but    especially    young   men, 


366  HYGIENE. 

against  a  disease  of  which  I  imagine  yon  have  never 
heard,  namely,  Dipsomania  or  Oinomania.  This  dis- 
ease, according  to  Dr.  Hutchinson,  is  characterized  by 
an  irresistible  propensity  to  swallow  stimulants  in 
enormous  doses  whenever  and  wherever  they  can  be 
found.  When  you  take  your  first  drink  you  plant  the 
seed  of  this  terrible  disease,  and  in  many  cases,  unless 
its  fertility  is  soon  destroyed,  it  will  germinate  and 
develop  into  a  well-marked  case  of  the  disease,  defying 
all  the  efforts  of  yourself  and  your  friends  to  overcome 
it,  and  terminating  only  with  your  life.  Many  of  you 
no  doubt  will  immediately  be  able  to  recall  an  instance 
of  this  disease  among  your  friends  or  acquaintances. 
Of  all  diseases  it  is  probably  the  most  terrible,  not 
only  destroying  the  body,  but  dooming  the  mind  to  a 
living  death  while  life  lasts.  The  pangs  of  conscience 
and  the  physical  sufferings  of  the  body  during  the  in- 
tervals of  self-consciousness  surely  must  equal  the  tor- 
tures of  the  damned ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  business 
and  domestic  misfortunes  this  life  of  semi-imbecility 
must  entail.  Now,  young  men,  a  word  more  to  you, 
about  which  let  me  beg  you  to  meditate.  I  will  not 
say  much  on  this  subject,  only  give  you  a  few  facts 
to  think  over;  if  you  have  intelligence  and  good  judg- 
ment, and  desire  to  do  right,  it  will  cause  you  to 
think,  and  that  I  am  sure  will  be  sufficient;  if  you 
have  not,  all  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes  would 
not  move  you. 

Plutarch"    says,     "  One    drunkard   begets   another;" 

*  Carpenter  on  Alcoholic  Liquors,  page  49. 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  367 

and  Aristotle  adds,  ' '  Drunken  women  bring  forth  chil- 
dren like  unto  themselves.''''  Dr.  Howe,  in  a  report  to 
the  legislature  of  Massachusetts,  says,  "  The  habits  of 
the  parents  of  300  of  the  idiots  were  learned,  and  14-5, 
or  nearly  one-half,  are  reported  to  be  known  as 
habitual  drunkards. "  Again,  '■'■The  parents  of  case 
No.  62  were  drunkards,  and  had  seven  idiotic  chil- 
dren." These  facts  will  not  be  questioned  for  an 
instant  by  anyone  who  has  passed  a  period  in  the 
lying-in  wards  of  a  large  municipal  hospital,  where 
many  of  the  patients  come  from  the  very  lowest  grades 
of  society,  and  the  offspring  are  mainly  the  results  of 
intemperance  and  vice.  Remember  that  many  of  you 
will  in  all  probability  become  fathers  or  mothers  in 
course  of  time,  and  as  you  read,  study  by  heart,  and 
firmly  fix  in  your  minds,  and  keep  ever  before  yon,  the 
four  dismal  facts  I  have  given  you,  and  let  your 
knowledge  act  as  a  lever  to  root  out  of  your  system 
the  seed  of  that  terrible  disease  I  have  told  you 
about.  Physically,  this  poison  is  more  particularly  in- 
jurious to  the  young  and  growing  organism,  for  the 
evident  reason  that  the  body,  when  in  process  cf  for- 
mation and  development,  is  more  susceptible  to  impres- 
sions of  all  kinds,  good  or  bad,  than  when,  further 
advanced  in  life,  it  becomes  more  settled.  Therefore  I 
would  desire  in  an  esrjecial  manner  to  prohibit  the  use 
of  alcohol  before  the  age  of  twenty-five  years.  If  young- 
persons  will  drink,  I  would  urge  them  to  confine  them- 
selves to  beer,  ale  and  light  wines,  in  moderate 
quantity,    letting     the     more     ardent     spirits,     brandy, 


368  HYGIENE. 

whiskey,  gin  and  the  like,  absolutely  alone.  They  will 
thus  suffer  the  minimum  of   harm. 

Let  me  condemn  in  the  strongest  terms  the  habit  so 
common  among  a  certain  class  of  Germans,  of  giving 
beer  to  their  little  children ;  it  may  make  them  fat 
and  rosy,  and  for  the  time  apparently  healthy,  but  in 
the  long  run  it  will  redound  to  their  physical  injury, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  evil  effects  of  inculcating  a  taste 
for  it. 

We  will  now  for  a  moment  stud}?-  the  chemical 
effects  of  alcohol  on  the  constituents  of  the  blood 
itself.  An  ingredient  called  fibrin,  which  is  very  essen- 
tial to  the  formation  of  healthy  tissue,  is  so  affected  by 
alcohol  as  to  lessen  its  coagulability,  its  ability  to  be- 
come hard  and  firm,  hence  it  cannot  take  its  proper 
place  in  its  normal  condition  in  the  tissues.  To  make 
this  familiar,  notice  how  much  slower  a  wound  heals 
in  an  intemperate  man  than  in  one  who  does  not  use 
alcohol.  This  is  due  to  the  lowered  tone  of  the  fibrin 
and  other  elements  of  the  blood.  The  blood  contains 
an  infinite  number  of  small  disks,  called  red  corpuscles, 
which  play  an  important  part  in  nutrition ;  now,  when 
touched  by  alcohol,  they  shrink  and  shrivel  up,  while 
some  of  their  contents  ooze  out;  so  you  can  see  that 
they  must  be  unfit  to  perform  their  intended  duty  in 
the  body.  Still  further:  the  different  dead  and  worth- 
less particles  which  should  have  been  discarded  by  the 
different  organs  if  they  had  acted  properly,  remaining 
in  the  blood,  finally  accumulate  in  such  immense 
quantities  that   it    becomes  almost  a  mechanical  neces- 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  369 

sity  for  them  to  get  out  of  it  in  some  manner,  so  they 
force  their  way  through  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels 
into  the  muscles  and  joints,  and  we  have  the  swellings 
and  tortures  of  rheumatism  and  gout.  Finally,  a  most 
important  function  of  the  blood  is  interfered  with. 
Nothing  occurs  in  this  world  by  chance ;  there  is  a 
cause  for  everything.  We  have  in  our  bodies  what 
are  called  involuntary  muscles,  that  is  to  say,  muscles 
which  act  independently  of  the  will  when  we  sleep  as 
well  as  when  we  are  awake.  Over  this  we  have  no 
control.  The  heart  is  the  best  illustration  of  this, 
constantly  and  regularly  contracting  and  relaxing;  our 
will  has  not  the  slightest  control  over  it,  though  its 
action  is  affected  by  emotions  or  other  nervous  influ- 
ences. There  are  many  other  muscles  concerned  in 
carrying  on  the  business  of  life,  which  are  similar  to 
the  heart  in  this  respect.  Now,  these  muscles  must 
receive  their  power  to  move,  their  life,  from  some 
source;  they  cannot  move  of  themselves.  This  comes 
from  the  central  office,  the  brain  and  nervous  centres, 
which  originate  the  power  and  distribute  it  to  the 
various  muscles,  through  the  agency  of  the  human 
telegraph  wires,  the  nerves.  Now,  the  nervous  centres 
must,  in  the  first  place,  receive  their  power  of  orig- 
inating before  they  can  issue  their  commands.  This 
power  they  receive  from  the  oxygen  in  the  blood ;  so, 
you  anticipate  me,  that  if  alcohol  deprives  the  blood 
of  its  oxygen,  the  nervous  centres  not  receiving  their 
proper  incentive  to  action  must  execute  their  work  but 
poorly. 


370  HYGIENE. 

Many  suppose  that  alcohol  augments  the  powers  of 
the  system  to  withstand  the  evil  effects  of  heat  and 
cold  and  other  depressing  influences.  This  is  a  mis- 
take. By  blunting  the  powers  of  perception,  alcohol 
makes  us  think  that  we  are  less  affected  by  these 
deleterious  agents,  while  in  reality,  by  lowering  the 
tone  of  the  general  system,  it  allows  them  to  do 
greater  harm.  All  medical  experience  proves  this.  To 
be  just,  I  must  admit  that  the  combination  of  alcohol 
with  oxygen,  about  which  I  have  told  you,  does  pro- 
duce a  great  amount  of  heat,  more,  in  fact,  than  is 
produced  by  the  natural  process,  just  as  the  burning 
of  an  alcohol  lamp  will  give  more  heat  than  the  burn- 
ing of  oil.  Hence,  alcohol  may  prove  beneficial  to 
tide  over  a  short  period  of  excessive  cold,  when  a 
sufficient  amount  of  heat-ru'oducing  food  cannot  be 
had.  But  its  continued  use  for  this  purpose  can  only 
do  harm. 

Some  persons  consider  small  doses  of  alcohol  a 
good  tonic.  Such  an  opinion  is  erroneously  based  on 
a  temporary  benefit  derived  from  its  use.  A  tonic  is 
something  that  increases  the  general  tone  of  the  sys- 
tem ;  now,  alcohol,  by  its  stimulating  j)ower,  seems  to 
do  this,  while  in  reality  it  is  vitiating  the  system,  as 
evidenced  in  the  subsequent  depression.  Some  persons 
with  a  leaning  towards  fatalism  will  likely  contend 
that  the  fact  of  the  desire  for  alcohol  being  so  universal 
is  argument  in  favor  of  its  beneficial  effects,  when  pro- 
perly used.  Is  not  this  desire  rather  one  of  the  tempta- 
tions   which    the    Creator    has    allowed    to    be    placed 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  371 

before  us?  When  some  persons  ascend  great  heights 
they  feel  an  almost  irresistible  desire  to  throw  them- 
selves down ;  this  desire  is  no  indication  that  it  would 
be  well  for  them  to  do  so. 

Owing  to  want  of  space,  I  must  confine  myself  to 
the  statement  that  I  can  produce  countless  instances, 
both  of  individuals  and  of  large  bodies  of  men,  who 
have  clearly  demonstrated  their  ability  to  perform 
great  physical  labor  in  a  high  temperature  with  less 
exhaustion  and  detriment  to  health  when  they  did  not, 
than  when  they  did,  use  alcohol;  while  it  has  been 
abundantly  proven  that  alcohol  not  only  does  not  enable 
one  to  withstand  the  evil  effects  of  great  cold,  but 
that,  on  the  contrary,  it  makes  them  more  susceptible 
thereto. 

Port,  sherry  and  Madeira  are  very  apt  to  disorder 
the  digestion  and  predispose  or  excite  gout.  Be  care- 
ful to  avoid  acidity  in  beer.  A  physician  of  large  ex- 
perience has  remarked  that  ' '  There  is  no  more  fruit- 
ful source  of  gout,  rheumatism,  diseased  heart,  dropsy, 
and  the  consequent  early  death  of  the  robust  working 
man,  than  this  beer  just  on  the  turn  and  ready  to 
become  thick  vinegar  in  the  stomach."* 

I  have  now  told  you  plainly  what  alcohol  can,  and 
in  the  majority  of  cases  will,  do  to  the  body  of  man. 
It  rests  with  each  individual  to  decide  whether  or  not 
he  will  incur  this  risk.  Of  course  alcohol  will  be  more 
injurious  to  some  than  to  others;  therefore,  in  this,  as 
in  other  questions,  every  man  must  be  a  law  unto  him- 

*  Healthy  Life. — "Wilson;  page  150. 


372  HYGIENE. 

self.  I  can  give  you  the  absolute  rules  that  guide  the 
action  of  alcohol  on  the  body,  but  no  one  can  tell  just 
how  much  or  how  little  any  particular  individual  will 
be  affected,  except  by  experience  of  such  particular 
case.  But  I  can  tell  you,  beyond  any  doubt,  that  there 
never  has  and  never  will  be  a  perfectly  healthy  man 
whose  life  has  been  prolonged  or  whose  health  has 
been  improved  by  the  use  of  alcohol. 

When  there  are  two  sides  to  a  question  it  is  but 
just  that  they  should  both  be  presented ;  and  when  I 
find  some  good  in  alcohol,  in  the  estimation  of  so  high 
an  authority  as  Dr.  H.  C.  Wood,  Professor  of  Materia 
Medica  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  it  behooves 
me  to  give  it  to  you.  Dr.  Wood  says,  "That  in  many 
cases  af  illness,  and  in  those  periods  of  life  when  by 
reason  of  age  the  body  waxes  weak,  alcohol  is  possessed 
of  great  virtues."  "He  believes  the  moderate  employ- 
ment of  stimulants  is  very  useful  to  individuals  past 
the  age  of  sixty  years.  In  the  later  years  of  life  even 
the  narcotic  influence  of  alcohol  is  of  great  value,  eas- 
ing the  restlessness  due  to  slight  discomforts,  and  the 
suffering  of  nerve  failure  incident  to  decreasing  vitality. 
In  chronic  diseases,  malt  liquors  have  both  their  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages.  They  represent  food  and 
drink,  are  less  apt  to  be  abused  than  are  stronger 
liquids,  and,  by  virtue  of  their  bitterness,  have  some 
tonic  properties.  The  tendency  to  grossness  seen  in 
beer  drinkers  undoubtedly  largely  depends  upon  the 
solid  constituents  of  the  beer  which  is  taken,  and  seems 
to  indicate   the    proper    medical    use    of    malt    liquors, 


STIMULANTS— CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  373 

viz.:  that  they  are  especially  to  be  employed  in  wasting 
diseases,  i.  e.T  where  there  is  a  tendency  to  the  loss  of 
the  bodily  fat.  As  the  malt  liquors  contain  nutritive 
material,  it  is  less  necessary  to  give  food  with  them 
than  it  is  with  whiskey  or  wines." 

In  conclusion,  I  will  give  you  the  opinions  of  some 
eminent  medical  men  on  the  use  of  alcohol. 

Dr.  N".  S.  Davis,  the  famous  physician  of  Chicago, 
says:  "Alcohol  is  an  ancesthetic  [an  agent  calculated 
to  produce  unconsciousness],  directly  diminishing 
nervous  sensibility,  and  lessening  the  natural  changes 
constituting  nutrition  and  waste,  and  as  it  produces 
these  effects  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  taken,  it 
cannot  but  be  more  or  less  injurious  •  when  taken  in 
any  quantity  whatsoever  by  persons  in  health.  I 
think  actual  investigation  has  fully  shown  that  both 
tobacco  and  alcohol,  when  habitually  used,  even  in 
moderation,  do  lessen  both  mental  and  physical 
energy,  and  shorten  the  duration  of  life." 

Dr.  Roswell  Park,  of  the  same  city,  says,  "I 
think  the  greatest  risk  in  the  use  of  either  [tobacco 
or  alcohol]  is  that  he  who  indulges  will  be  led 
rather  to  increase  than  decrease  the  daily  allowance, 
and  thus  to  use  them  immoderately.  In  cases  where 
constitutions  seem  intolerant,  I  think  they  do  positive 
harm.  I  can  conceive  of  no  permanent  benefit  to 
health  to  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  either  of  the 
drugs.  On  the  contrary,  I  consider  that  the  effort  to 
establish  tolerance  is.  for  the  time  being,  a  tax  on  the 
health.     It    is    only    in   cases    of    special    privation     or 


374  HYGIENE. 

hardship  that  I  think  a  person  needs  alcohol,  and 
tobacco  one  never  needs,  as  proved  by  the  fact  that 
its  first  effects  on  one  unaccustomed  to  it  are  poisonous. 
In  general  terms,  while  I  cannot  practice  without 
using  alcohol,  considering  it  sometimes  as  a  positive 
food,  and  again  as  a  medicinal  agent,  I  think  anyone 
can  always  do  just  as  well  without  either  of  the 
drugs  as  he  possibly  can  with  them." 

Dr.  R.  L.  Rea  says:  "Many  persons  live  to  ex- 
treme age  and  use  both,  but  where  they  are  healthy 
it  is  in  spite  of,  and  not  because  of  the  use  of  either. 
Alcohol  I  believe  to  be  a  valuable  medicine,  but  I 
rarely  prescribe  it,  especially  for  men,  for  fear  of 
replacing  the  disease  by  a  worse  one." 

Dr.  J.  S.  Jewell,  and  Dr.  Bannister,  of  Chicago, 
say :  ' '  The  moderate  use  of  alcohol  is  probably  not 
injurious  to  many  healthy  persons.  The  danger  is  in 
the  difficulty  of  preserving  moderation,  in  the  true 
sense,  and  this  is  sufficiently  great  to  make  total  absti- 
nence the  only  perfectly  safe  rule.  We  have  seen  per- 
sons who  seemed  to  be  better  for  a  little  alcohol  at 
meals  or  in  the  evening,  but  we  could  not  call  them 
healthy  persons ;  in  every  case  it  was  a  sort  of  medi- 
cine. The  habit  of  using  either  tobacco  or  alcohol  is 
apt  to  become  intensified,  and  moderation  so  easily  and 
imperceptibly  passes  into  immoderate  use  that  we  think 
medical  advice  ought  to  be  against  these  agents.  The 
fact  that  some  cases  are  benefited  by  alcohol  is  no  rea- 
son for  advising  its  habitual  use,  even  in  moderation." 

I  could  go    on   indefinitely,    giving   you   opinions  of 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  375 

the  same  tenor  which  I  have  received  from  medical 
men,  but  they  would  be  tiresome.  These  few  will 
suffice,  when  I  tell  you  that  they  all  express  virtually 
the  same  views.  While  they  recognize  that  alcohol 
may,  in  some  cases,  prove  beneficial,  yet  they  all  claim 
that  it  proves  injurious  in  such  a  large  majority  of 
cases,  and  that  its  use  is  so  apt  to  grow  imperceptibly 
into  abuse,  that  they  universally  advise  against  its  in- 
dulgence in  health  at  all. 

How  to  Break  the  Alcohol  Habit. 

There  will  be  many  of  my  readers,  no  doubt,  who 
will,  after  perusing  this  chapter,  be  anxious  to  give  up 
the  use  of  alcohol,  yet  will  fear  that  because  they 
have  indulged  in  it  for  many  years  it  will  be  injuri- 
ous for  them  to  do  so.  For  the  comfort  of  such,  I 
will  say,  remember  what  Dr.  Carpenter  has  been  quoted 
to  have  said,  in  the  early  part  of  this  chapter. 

Believe  me,  that  even  the  most  inveterate  drunk- 
ards can  absolutely  abandon  the  use  of  alcohol  with- 
out detriment  to  health.  They  will  have  terrible 
feelings  for  awhile,  but  their  strength  of  will  must  be 
brought  into  play  to  bridge  over  this  terrible  time, 
until  the  forces  of  nature  have  once  more  asserted 
their  sway  and  enabled  their  various  organs  to  perform 
their  duty  without  the  aid  of  artificial  stimulants. 

I  once  knew  a  gentleman  who  for  years  was  a  very 
heavy  drinker.  On  his  way  home  from  business  every 
evening  for  more  than  twenty  years  he  was  in  the 
habit  of  stopping  in  taverns  with  friends,   and  managed 


376  HYGIENE. 

to  get  drunk  every  night  before  he  reached  home. 
Getting  up  in  the  morning,  feeling  terribly,  he  would 
consume  several  cocktails  before  he  was  tit  for  any- 
thing. 

Finally,  one  morning,  after  he  had  been  particularly 
drunk  the  night  before,  he  stopped  at  one  of  his  usual 
haunts  on  the  way  down  town,  and  ordered  a  very 
strong  cocktail;  as  he  was  about  to  drink  it,  the 
thought  came  suddenly  into  his  mind :  "1  have  ruined 
my  life  for  twenty  years  with  alcohol.  I  will  never 
drink  another  drop.11  Going  home,  he  sent  for  his 
brother-in-law,  who  was  a  physician,  and  told  him  that 
he  had  made  up  his  mind  to  renounce  alcohol  for- 
ever, and  wanted  some  medicine  to  settle  his  nerves. 
The  doctor  laughed  at  him,  and  said,  "Why,  you 
will  die  without  liqour."  "All  right,"  was  the  reply; 
"if  I  do,  I  will  die  sober."  This  man  told  me  that 
for  two  or  three  months  his  life  was  a  torture  to 
him;  still,  he  adhered  to  his  resolution.  By  degrees 
he  commenced  to  feel  all  right,  and  now  for  more 
than  twelve  years  he  has  not  tasted  liquor,  neither 
does  he  crave  it.     What  he  has  done,  all  can  do. 

Make  up  your  mind  that  you  will  not  drink.  Use 
the  power  of  will  the  Almighty  has  given  you,  and 
allow  no  temptation  to  swerve  you  from  your  pur- 
pose. Take  my  word  for  it,  you  will  all  enjoy  better 
health  in  the  long  run,  and  have  much  more  pleasure 
in  life,  without,  than  with  the  use  of  alcohol. 

There  can  be  no  half-way  business  about  breaking 
the  alcohol  habit.     The  idea  of   cutting  down,  of  grad- 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  377 

imlly  reducing  the  quantity  used,  has  been  tried  over 
and  over  again,  and  has,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  only 
resulted  in  failure  and  in  a  consequent  increase  of 
quantity  used,  on  account  of  the  spirit  of  desperation 
born  of  repeated  failures. 

So  much  has  been  written  on  alcohol,  its  evils  have 
been  so  repeatedly  pointed  out,  and  yet  it  is  so  gener- 
ally used,  that  I  fear  my  arguments  and  words  will 
carry  but  little  weight.  Therefore,  I  will  not  longer 
weary  you.  I  have  told  you  plainly  what  alcohol  will 
do;  you  must  decide  for  yourself  whether  or  not, 
knowing  these  facts,  you  will  use  it. 

But  one  more  thing  I  must  tell  you  again. 

If  you  decide  to  give  up  the  use  of  this  agent,  after 
having  used  it  freely  for  years,  believe  me  there  is 
nothing  to  be  gained  by  temporizing.  Make  up  your 
mind  not  to  drink  anything,  and  stick  faithfully  to  your 
resolution. 

A  Murderer's  Story. 

The  Extraordinary  Autobiography  of  a  Condemned  British  Ruffian. 

The  English  papers  publish  a  long  and  curious  state- 
ment made  by  one  Thomas  Fury,  alias  Wright,  alias 
Cort,  after  being  found  guilty,  at  Durham  assizes,  of 
the  willful  murder  of  a  woman  named  Maria  Fitzsim- 
mons,  at  Sunderland,  in  1869.  Sentenced  to  fifteen 
years'  penal  servitude,  for  robbery  and  attempted  mur- 
der, in  Norwich,  in  1870,  he  voluntarily  accused  him- 
self of  the  murder  of  the  woman  Fitzsimmons.     He  was 


378  HYGIENE. 

put  on  his  trial  and  found  guilty.  Fury  manifested  the 
keenest  anxiety  to  be  convicted,  and  received  the  sen- 
tence of  death  with  the  utmost  satisfaction.  His  auto- 
biographical statement  is  a  psychological  curiosity,  and 
not  without  public  interest  as  a  contribution  to  the 
study  of  "crime  causes."  The  following  extracts  give 
the  main  part  of  the  story: 

'"Although  my  past  career,  as  both  a  thief  and  a 
liar,  would  not,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  entitle 
me  to  receive  any  credit  in  regard  to  my  statements, 
yet  as  I  now  stand  before  you  for  the  last  time,  as  a 
dying,  or  rather,  a  dead,  man,  I  beg  your  attention  to 
the  few  words  I  now  address  to  you — not  for  my  own 
benefit,  but  for  your  own.  Every  cause  must  have  an 
effect,  and  every  effect  an  antecedent  cause,  or  series 
of  causes.  I  stand  before  you  now  as  the  resultant  of  the 
forces  of  persuasion,  example  and  compulsion.  And 
Maria  Fitzsimmons,  whom  I  murdered  thirteen  years 
ago,  was  another  of  those  terrific  results.  The  injustice 
of  the  land-laws  in  Ireland  caused  my  relations  to  join 
Ribbon-men,  and  leave  their  country;  and  then  in- 
duced my  mother  to  come  to  England  to  meet  my 
father.  Perhaps  crime  is  hereditary  in  my  case — 
another  fact  to  strengthen  Darwin's  and  Huxley's  the- 
ories. I  do  not  know,  nor  have  I  heard-  of,  but  one 
member  on  either  side  of  our  family  that  was  not 
strongly  addicted  to  drinking.  My  father  was  a  drunk- 
ard. My  mother  was  forced  to  become  one — held  down 
by  her  nearest  relatives  while  they  poured  rum  down 
her    throat    until    she    promised     to    be    sociable.       As 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  379 

regards  myself,  I  know  that  I  was  raving  drunk  before 
I  was  eight  years  old,  and  several  times  before  I  was 
ten  years  of  age.  One  of  the  reasons  for  giving  myself 
up  is  to  get  rid  of  that  craving  for  drink,  for  which,  in 
my  case  at  least,  extinction  is  the  only  cure.  I  shall 
be  quite  reconciled  to  die  a  shameful  and  dishonorable 
death — in  fact,  feel  happy — if  by  my  fearful  doom  some, 
a  few  at  the  least,  may  be  warned  by  the  dreadful 
example  I  have  become,  to  avoid  that  habit  while  they 
have  strength  yet  to  resist  it. 

"  { I  was  early  initiated  into  the  accursed  habit,  and 
it  was  more  fully  developed  during  four  years  spent 
among  seamen,  who  seem  to  think  that  drink  is  the 
sum  mum  bonum  of  human  life.  After  this  it  was  my 
fate  to  have  to  spend  more  than  four  years  in  prison. 
Upon  my  discharge,  and  obtaining  another  ship,  I 
determined  not  to  drink.  Upon  the  mate  offering  me 
my  share  of  beer  I  civilly  declined  it,  receiving  a  storm 
of  abuse  in  return,  accompanied  with  an  order  to  leave 
the  ship  and  go  ashore  if  I  did  not  like  to  drink. 
Thirty  miles  from  home,  without  a  penny  in  my  pocket, 
what  was  I  to  do  ?  I  saw  the  good,  the  evil  I  had  to 
follow.  I  drank  the  beer,  was  praised  for  being  a  man ; 
and  the  result  therefrom,  as  if  human  blood  had  been 
given  to  a  tame  tiger,  was  that  drink  was  all  that  I 
lived  for ;  for  this  only  did  I  work ;  for  it  I  neglected 
my  duty  to  myself,  my  mother  and  my  employers;  for 
it  I  became  again  a  thief,  by  using  money  entrusted 
to  me  by  my  shipmates;  for,  by  and  through  it  I 
now    stand  before  you  as    the    murderer   of    a   woman. 


380  HYGIENE. 

'''It  would  be  only  a  waste  of  time  to  detail  all 
the  other  crimes  I  have  been  guilty  of  since  February, 
1869,  while  under  the  influence  of  drink ;  mostly  crimes 
of  violence.  One  of  the  effects  of  drink  upon  me  is 
an  irresistible  desire  to  do  people  injury,  even  though 
they  may  have  given  me  no  provocation.  Once  I 
threatened  my  mother  with  a  knife,  shame  being  the 
only  cause  of  not  executing  the  threat.  I  have  been 
in  prisons  more  than  thirteen  times,  extending  over  a 
period  of  eighteen  years.  During  that  time  I  have 
spoken  to  many  hundreds  of  prisoners,  and  only  met 
with  one  who  had  been  an  abstainer  previous  to  his 
conviction.  And  if  any  of  you  have  the  slightest  feel- 
ing of  pity  or  commiseration  for  that  poor  unfortu- 
nate woman  whom  I  killed  in  my  stupid,  mad,  drunken 
fury,  and  for  others,  not  only  of  her  class,  but  of 
every  other  class,  let  me  beg  of  you  who  call  your- 
selves Englishmen  to  try,  by  will,  word  and  act,  and 
influence,  to  banish  those  habits,  tastes  and  customs 
which  are  the  sources  of  so  much  misery,  vice  and 
crime.'  " 

Please  bear  in  mind  that  I  have  been  describing 
to  you  the  effects  and  results  of  intemperance  in  the 
use  of  alcohol.  There  can  be  no  question  in  the  mind 
of  any  impartial  observer,  that  there  are  many  per- 
sons that  can  and  do  use  liquor  temperately  or  mod- 
erately without  doing  themselves  any  harm ;  but  it  is 
also  equally  and  undoubtedly  true  that  very  many 
persons  are  so  constituted  that  they  cannot  use  it  at 
all  without  going  to  excess;    and  it  is   also   a  fact  that 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  881 

there  is  no  way  in  which  one  can  tell,  beforehand, 
whether  or  not  he  possesses  the  requisite  self-control 
that  will  allow  of  his  using  liquor  and  yet  remaining 
temperate.  Hence,  to  sum  np,  while  total  abstinence 
is  not  necessary  for  all,  it  is  the  safest  and  surest 
way  to  avoid  intemperance. 

Coffee— Tea— Vinegar— Mustard— Pepper  and  Salt. 

Coffee  is  a  stimulant,  but,  unlike  alcohol  in  this 
respect,  the  stimulation  produced  by  coffee  is  not  fol- 
lowed by  a  subsequent  depression.  The  nutritive  value 
of  coffee  is  not  very  great,  though  it  ranks  higher 
than  tea  in  this  respect.  If  used  to  excess  coffee  will 
produce  wakefulness,  and  will  unfavorably  affect  the 
nervous  system. 

Although,  as  we  have  seen,  tea  is  used  by  500,- 
000,000  persons,  I  can  positively  say  that  tea  (at  least, 
as  prej>ared  m  this  country)  ought  not  to  be  used  by 
anyone.  Tea  contains  a  great  deal  of  tannin,  and 
because  of  this  fact  it  greatly  interferes  with  diges- 
tion. 

Salt  is  a  necessity  of  all  animal  life.  Of  mustard, 
pepper  and  vinegar,  all  that  need  be  said  is  that  they 
are  no't  necessary  to  life,  and  as  they. are  irritants  one 
had  just  as  well  let  them  alone. 


382  HYGIENE. 

QUESTIONS   FOR   REVIEW. 

439.  Does  scientific  truth  dominate  the  question  of  stimulants  ? 

440.  What  do  you  mean  by  stimulants  ? 

441.  Is  alcohol  the  only  stimulant?  what  are  the  others? 

442.  Is  the  use  of  distilled  liquors  universal  ? 

443.  Does  this  universal  use  of  liquor  prove  that  it  is  beneficial  to 
the  human  body? 

444.  What  is  alcohol  ? 

445.  What  does  Dr.  Parkes  say  of  the  food  value  of  alcohol  ? 

446.  What  is  the  active  principle  of  all  manufactured  wines  and 
liquors  ? 

447.  Is  it  the  use  or  the  abuse  of  alcohol  that  is  to  be  condemned? 
but  what  is  the  inevitable  result  of  its  use  in  most  cases  ? 

448.  What  is  the  only  way  to  make  absolutely  sure  of  avoiding 
the  abuse  of  alcohol  ? 

449.  Why  should  we  regard  alcohol  rather  as  a  drug  than  as  a 
beverage  ? 

450.  Does  the  victim  of  the  excessive  use  of  alcohol  realize  his 
slavery  ? 

451.  What  is  the  most  dangerous  form  of  drinking? 

452.  Is  any  organ  or  part  of  the  body  exempt  from  the  injurious 
effects  of  alcohol  ? 

453.  What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  "  Cell "  / 

454.  What  is  the  action  of  alcohol  upon  the  stomach  ?  describe  the 
experiments  made  upon  Alexis  St.  Martin. 

455.  Describe  the  action  of  alcohol  upon  the  brain ;  what  is 
apoplexy?  what  is  the  relation  between  insanity  and  the  use  of 
alcohol  ? 

456.  Describe  the  action  of  alcohol  in  the  lungs ;  how  does  it  inter- 
fere with  the  oxygenation  of  the  blood,  and  what  is  its  effect  upon 
nutrition  ? 


STIMULANTS — CONDIMENTS,    ETC.  383 

457.  What  is  the  action  of  alcohol  upon  the  liver  ?  how  does  it 
cause  dropsy  ? 

458.  How  does  the  abuse  of  alcohol  produce  fatty  degeneration  of 
the  heart  and  other  organs  ? 

459.  What  is  the  effect  of  alcohol  upon  the  nervous  system  ? 

460.  What  do  you  say  of  the  difference  between  whiskey  and  beer  ? 

461.  What  do  you  say  of  the  temporary,  seeming  health  of  some 
who  use  alcohol  ? 

462.  What  has  been  noted  of  the  influence  of  the  use  of  alcohol  in 
making  nurses  susceptible  to  contagious  diseases  ? 

463.  What  is  the  danger  of  the  "  first  glass  "  ? 

464.  What  is  dipsomania  ? 

465.  What  do  you  say  of  the  children  of  drunkards  ? 

466.  What  do  you  say  of  giving  beer  to  young  children  ? 

467.  What   is   the  action  of  alcohol  upon  the  constituents  of  the 
blood  ? 

468.  How  does  the  use  of  alcohol  favor  the  production  of  rheumatism 
and  gout  ? 

469.  When   alcohol  deprives  the  blood  of  its  oxygen,  what  is  the 
effect  upon  the  nervous  centres  ? 

470.  Does  the  use  of  alcohol  enable  us  to  withstand  the  evil  effects 
of  extreme  heat  or  cold  ? 

471.  Is  alcohol  in  small  doses  a  good  tonic? 

472.  What  does  Dr.  Wood  say  of  the  use  of  alcohol  in  old  age? 

47^.  What  are  the  opinions  of  eminent  physicians  about  the  use  of 
alcohol? 

474.  How  can  you  break  the  alcohol  habit  ? 

475.  Relate  "  A  Murderer's  Story." 

476.  Is  it  possible  for  anyone  to   determine  for  himself  whether  he 
p  assesses  the  ability  to  use  alcohol  and  stop  short  of  its  abuse  ? 

477.  What  do  you  say  about  coffee,  tea,  vinegar,  mustard,  pepper, 
salt  ? 


384  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 
HABITS  AND  CUSTOMS. 

Habit  is  controlled  and  corrected  by  habit.  We 
are  all  creatures  of  habit,  and  the  majority  of  us  crea- 
tures of  very  bad  habits,  so  far  as  health  and  long  life 
are  concerned.  Did  we  but  realize  the  fact  that  habit 
is  corrected  by  habit,  and  that  good  habits,  if  culti- 
vated, would  be  just  as  natural  and  easy  of  acquisi- 
tion as  bad  habits,  I  imagine  that  all  of  us  would  be 
very  ready  to  make  at  least  a  slight  effort  to  substitute 
our  faulty  habits  with  those  that  would  be  for  our  good. 

Very  few  persons  act  upon  reason;  the  mass  of 
humanity  is  guided  solely  by  impulse,  and  that  which 
has  become  a  habit  is  that  which  we  are  always 
doing. 

Lord  Brougham  tells  us  that  he  who  makes  sobriety 
a  habit,  finds  intemperance  hateful;  to  him  who  makes 
prudence  a  habit,  profligacy  will  be  as  contrary  to  his 
nature  as  the  most  atrocious  crimes  would  Ije  to  any 
of  us. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  we  should  cultivate  hygienic 
habits;  it  may  be  a  little  irksome  and  require  a  little 
thought  in  the  beginning,  but  once  cultivated  into 
"habits"  their  performance  will  be  as  natural  and  as 
instinctive   as   all    "habits"   always  are. 


HABITS    AND    CUSTOMS.  385 

Therefore,  let  us  start  out  with  the  idea  that  it  is 
just  as  easy  to  cultivate  habits  that  will  be  condu- 
cive to,  as  those  that  will  be  inimical  to  health. 

Every  person  is  endowed  with  the  power  of  "will," 
and  by  the  exercise  of  this  will-power  the  bodily 
actions   are   controlled. 

The  ugly  habit  of  ' '  biting  the  nails ' '  could  be 
readily  controlled  and  corrected  if  one  would  but 
2)ositively  and  firmly  make  up  his  mind  not  to  bite 
them. 

Cleanliness  should  be  made  a  habit,  and  when  thus 
cultivated  it  would  be  as  natural  as  the  opposite  con- 
dition  now   is  to   so   many   persons. 

No  one  should  ever  eat  a  meal  without  previously 
washing  the  hands,  and  the  teeth  should  be  thor- 
oughly brushed  and  the  mouth  well  rinsed  out  after 
every  meal. 

The  filthy  habit  of  putting  coins  in  the  mouth 
should  be  corrected  by  never  putting  anything  into 
the  mouth  except  food  and  drink.  You  do  not  know 
in  what  foul  pockets,  dirty  boxes,  soiled  hands,  or 
diseased  mouths  this  money  that  you  are  handling 
has  been. 

"Make  haste  slowly"  is  a  maxim  that  should  be 
ever  before  you;  "hurry  and  worry"  are  fatal;  they 
kill  many  persons.  Cultivate  the  habit  of  never  doing 
anything  in  a  hurry;  be  deliberate  in  all  of  your 
actions;  above  all,  do  not  run  upstairs.  Suppose  you 
weigh  120  pounds  and  you  run  up  a  flight  of  twenty 
steps;    on    every    step    you    have    lifted    120    pounds; 


386  HYGIENE. 

when  you  reach  the  top  you  have  lifted  2400  pounds, 
and  this  in  the  .space  of  about  one  minute.  Is  it 
any  wonder  that  your  heart  throbs  and  that  you  are 
out  of  breath?  Never  do  anything  in  a  hurry;  don't 
hurry  upstairs ;  don't  hurry  along  the  street;  don't 
hurry  in  any  of  the  various  duties  of  life.  Take 
your  time  about  everything.  It  is  all  nonsense  for 
men  to  think  that  hurry  means  business.  Really 
great  and  successful  business  men  never  do  things  in 
a  hurry;  they  are  always  deliberate  and  placid.  Some 
men  are  always  in  a  hurry,  and  for  a  time  they  seem 
to  prosper;  but  watch  them  and  you  will  see  that 
such  men  die  in  a  hurry.  It  is  not  the  fastest  walker, 
but  the  one  with  the  greatest  endurance  who  finally 
wins  the  race;  hurry  will  not  produce  lasting  ma- 
terial  success,    and   it   will  kill. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  controlling  your  temper  and 
never  give  way  to  anger.  John  Hunter  was  one  of  the 
greatest  surgeons  of  England ;  he  had  heart  disease ; 
he  knew  that  he  had  it  and  he  was  ever  watchful  to 
restrain  himself  from  excitement  or  anger,  knowing  how 
dangerous  these  emotions  might  prove  to  his  weakened 
heart. 

For  years  he  thus  lived  in  comfort.  One  day,  losing 
control  of  himself,  because  of  an  unjust  criticism  upon 
his  actions,  he  rose,  full  of  anger,  to  reply,  and  as  he 
opened  his  mouth  to  speak,  fell  lifeless  to  the  floor. 
Anger  had  killed  him.  A  well-known  surgeon  of 
St.  Petersburg  was  about  to  perform  an  operation, 
when  he   was    angered    by   the   awkwardness   of   one   of 


HABITS   AND    CUSTOMS.  887 

his  assistants ;  he  spoke  sharply  to  him,  fell  fainting 
to  the  floor,  and  died  in  a  few  minutes. 

When  you  have  learned  to  control  your  temper  you 
have  learned  one  of  the  greatest  secrets  of  health  and 
long  life.  Learn  how  to  laugh  and  look  upon  the 
bright  side  of  everything;  for  everything  has  a  bright 
side,  if  we  look  for  it,  no  matter  how  dismal  it  may 
appear  at  the  first  glance. 

A  famous  literary  man,  replying  to  an  inquiry  about 
his  health,  said:  "lam  suffering  much  from  rheuma- 
tism ;  my  liver  and  stomach  are  sadly  out  of  order ; 
my  kidneys  do  not  act  well;  I  suffer  much  from  head- 
ache; but  otherwise,  thaiik  God,  I  am  quite  well." 
Cultivate  the  habit  of  finding  the  best  and  not  the 
worst  aspect  of  your  conditions  and  surroundings. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  avoiding  quarrels  and  disputes ; 
they  never  do  good  and  always  do  harm.  The  vener- 
able Father  Curley,  who  died  a  few  years  ago  at  the 
age  of  more  than  90,  and  who  was  one  of  the  fore- 
most, if  not  the  leading,  astronomers  of  the  world,  tells 
us  that  when  he  was  young  he  had  fallen  into  the 
habit  of  disputing,  and  always  liked  to  carry  his  point; 
but,  noticing  that  it  disturbed  his  peace  and  led  him 
into  faults,  he  had  made  a  firm  determination  never 
to  forget  himself  and  never  to  dispute  on  any  subject. 
He  had  adhered  so  strongly  to  this  resolve  that  for  thirty 
years  he  had  never  been  a  party  to  any  dispute. 

Make  it  a  rule  of  life  never  to  take  offense  unless 
there  is  some  good  reason  why  offense  should  be  given, 
and  you  will  thus  avoid  many  quarrels. 


388  HYGIENE. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  avoiding  excess  in  anything; 
excessive  joy  is  as  injurious  as  excessive  grief;  too 
much  roast  beef  is  injurious ;  too  much  exercise ;  too 
much  sleep ;  too  much  of  any  of  the  good  things  of 
life  is  not  good  wisdom.  It  is  not  the  use  but  the 
abuse  of  anything  and  everything  that  proves  detri- 
mental to  health.  Try  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  moder- 
ation in  everything. 

Do  not  look  for  trouble  and  cause  to  worry ;  wait 
until  it  comes  to  you ;  it  is  a  great  piece  of  folly  for 
one  to  be  always  ready  to  meet  trouble  half-way ;  if 
he  would  put  off  all  the  journey  on  trouble  he  might 
never  meet  it. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  eating  slowly  and  thoroughly 
chewing  every  mouthful  of  food  before  swallowing  it 
into  the  stomach ;  the  reasons  for  this  have  been 
already  given,  but,  in  addition  thereto,  this  habit  should 
be  cultivated  on  the  ground  of  economy.  All  persons 
eat  too  much ;  that  is  to  say,  they  eat  more  than  the 
body  requires,  and  this  they  do  because  they  eat  too 
fast ;  a  small  piece  of  meat  or  bread,  thoroughly 
chewed  before  it  is  swallowed,  will  yield  more  nourish- 
ment to  the  body  than  many  times  its  bulk  if  hastily 
swallowed ;  hence,  by  eating  slowly  and  chewing  thor- 
oughly the  demands  of  the  appetite  will  be  satisfied 
with  a  very  much  smaller  quantity  of  food  than  is  the 
case  when  we  eat  hurriedly,  and  the  amount  of  money 
spent  for  provisions  will  be  thereby  very  greatly  lessened. 

Do  not  breathe  through  the  mouth,  unless  it  is  im- 
possible   to    breathe  through    the   nose.     The   nose   was 


HABITS    AND    CUSTOMS.  389 

made  for  breathing;  and  air  passing  through  the  long, 
moist,  nasal  passage  is  purified,  and  leaves  behind, 
adhering  to  the  moist  lining  of  the  nose,  dust,  disease 
germs  and  various  impurities ;  while  the  air  also  is 
warmed  and  tempered  for  the  lungs.  But  when  you 
breathe  through  the  mouth,  dust,  dirt  and  disease  rush 
down  into  the  lungs,  and  fastening  there  develop  and 
destroy  the  whole  system.  Avoid  the  disgusting  and 
unheal thful  habit  of  spitting  here,  there  and  every- 
where. The  saliva  that  is  thus  wasted  is  required  in 
the  body  for  purposes  of  digestion,  and  its  loss  will  be 
felt.  The  promiscuous  spitting  of  consumptives  is  very 
likely  to  convey  the  disease  to  others ;  the  germs  of 
the  disease  are  discharged  in  the  expectoration,  and 
when  this  dries  up  the  germs  are  set  free,  to  be  wafted 
about  and  into  the  lungs  of  other  persons.  You  should 
cultivate  the  habit  of  swallowing  your  saliva ;  this  may 
be  a  little  hard  at  first  for  boys,  who  seem  to  think 
that  "spitting'"  is  a  symbol  of  manhood;  but  it  is 
what   should  be  done. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  properly  brushing  the  teeth. 
Strange  as  it  may  seem,  but  few  persons  use  a  tooth- 
brush as  they  should.  It  is  not  enough  to  brush  the 
t^eth  alone,  but  the  whole  inside  of  the  mouth  should 
be  brushed  as  well.  Many  cases  of  "bad  breath"  are 
due  to  neglect  of  this  simple  practice.  The  dead  tissue 
in  the  mouth  should  be  brushed  loose  and  rinsed  away, 
otherwise  it  will  putrefy  and  prove  very  unpleasant  and 
offensive  to  both  the  individual  and  anyone  who  may 
be   in   close  proximity  to   him. 


390  HYGIENE. 

By  all  means  cultivate  the  habit  of  standing  erect; 
the  head  well  up ;  the  chin  drawn  in ;  the  shoulders 
thrown  back;  the  chest  expanded,  and  the  body  resting 
squarely  on  both  feet.  Avoid  the  habit  of  standing  on 
one  foot  only.  It  is  excellent  practice  for  one  to  walk 
with  a  good-sized  book  balanced  on  the  head,  because 
in  order  that  the  book  may  be  so  balanced  an 
erect  and  proper  carriage  of  the  body  is  absolutely 
essential. 

Dirty  finger-nails  are  not  only  unsightly,  but  they 
offer  good  soil  for  the  growth  of  disease  germs;  as  a 
rule  finger-nails  are  dirty  merely  because  their  owners 
have  not  cultivated  the  habit  of  cleaning  them.  It 
will  take  but  a  minute  or  two  of  time  daily  to 
make  them  clean,  and  when  you  have  formed  this 
habit  you  will  be  surprised  to  see  how  repulsive  dirty 
finger-nails  in  another  will  be  to  you.  Recently, 
in  Vienna,  finger-nail  dirt  from  78  j>ersons  was 
examined,  and  36  different  kinds  of  disease  germs  were 
found  therein. 

Bathing  has  been  already  so  thoroughly  discussed 
that  I  will  merely  point  the  necessity  of  cultivating 
the  habit  by  relating  an  anecdote :  A  French  doctor 
went  to  Damascus  to  seek  his  fortune.  When  he  saw 
the  luxurious  vegetation,  he  said,  ' '  This  is  the  place 
for  me,  plenty  of  fever."  And  then,  on  seeing  the 
abundance  of  water,  he  said,  ' '  More  fever ;  no  place 
like  Damascus."  When  he  entered  the  town,  he  asked 
the  people,  "What  is  this  building?"  "A  bath!"  and 
"what,    is    this    building?"      "A    bath!"    and     "that 


HABITS    AND    CUSTOMS.  391 

other  building?"  "A  bath!"  "Curse  on  so  many 
baths,  they  take  the  bread  out  of  my  mouth,"  said 
the  Doctor.  ' '  I  will  get  no  practice  here,  the  people 
are  too  cleanly."  So  he  turned  his  back  and  went 
out  of  the  gate  again  and   hied  himself  elsewhere. 

Many  writers  claim  that  drinking  water  is  a  mere 
habit;  I  think  that  it  is  a  very  good  habit  to  cultivate, 
and  I  do  not  think  that  one  can  drink  too  much  pure 
water;  what  is  meant  by  pure  water  will  be  understood 
when  we  come  to  the  chapter  devoted  to  this  subject. 
While  it  will  be  injurious  to  wash  our  food  down  our 
throats  with  water,  yet  the  habit  of  commencing  and 
finishing  a  meal  with  a  glass  of  water  is  a  very  good 
habit. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  frugality  in  eating,  and  do 
not  overload  your  stomach  because  that  which  you 
happen  to  be  eating  is  j)leasant  to  the  taste.  Pope 
Leo  is  very  frugal.  When  elected  Pope,  it  is  related 
of  him  that  when  he  first  sat  down  to  dinner  he 
found  an  extra  dish  on  the  table,  prepared  in  honor 
of  his  election.  To  the  servant,  he  said:  "Do  you 
think  I  can  eat  more  as  Pope  than  as  Cardinal?  Don't 
let  this  occur  again;  I  shall  regulate  my  own  stomach." 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  self-control  in  everything; 
persons  without  self-control,  as  a  rule,  die  young,  no 
matter  what  may  be  their  surroundings  and  conditions. 

Be  ever  ready  for  fun ;  most  persons  take  this  world 
too  seriously;  we  are  too  down-hearted,  rheumatic  and 
crotchety,  and  need  to  be  stirred  up  and  refreshed  by 
a  sail  down  the  river,  a  visit  to  the  circus,  a  good  look 


392  HYGIENE. 

at  a  game  of  baseball,  a  picnic  in  the  woods,  and  the 
like. 

Eating  candy  is  a  habit,  and  I  have  my  own  very 
decided  views  on  the  subject.  I  do  not  believe  that 
good,  pure  chocolate  candy,  mint,  cream  or  any  plain, 
pure  candy  in  moderation  will  do  anybody  any  harm ; 
but  variously  colored  candies,  candies  from  the  "corner- 
stand,"  of  inferior  quality,  and  covered  with  the  dust 
and  dirt  of  the  street,  cheap  candy,  ' '  prize-package ' ' 
candy,  are  all  injurious.  '  Good,  pure,  harmless  candy 
cannot  be  bought  for  nothing ;  it  costs  something  to 
make,  and  must  be  paid  for  accordingly,  but  it  is  the 
only  kind  that  can  be  used  with  impunity. 

Let  me  beg  of  you  to  avoid  the  frightful  habit  of 
giving  the  "  Jciss  of  disease  and  death,''''  by  which  I 
mean  that  you  should  discountenance  the  prevalent 
habit  of  kissing  between  strangers.  There  is  no  longer 
any  room  for  doubt  that  much  disease  is  conveyed  from 
one  person  to  another  in  this  way.  Kiss  your  own 
family  and  those  intimate  friends,  about  the  condition 
of  whose  health  you  are  well  informed,  but  do  not  kiss 
strangers,  and  do  not  allow  them  to  kiss  you. 

liaising  the  hat  in  salute  on  the  street  is  a  sense- 
less custom  that  has  resulted  in  giving  many  a  bald- 
headed  man  neuralgia.  The  bald  head  warmly  covered 
by  the  hat  is  suddenly  exposed  to  a  cold  blast  of  wind 
on  a  wintry  day ;  perspiration  is  checked ;  this  process 
is  repeated  many  times,  and  neuralgia  or  a  "cold  in 
the  head  "  is  the  result.  In  some  portions  of  Europe 
the    military   salute  has   taken   the    place    of   removing 


HABITS   AND    CUSTOMS.  393 

the  hat;  use    your  influence    for   the  adoption   of    this 
custom  in  our  own  country. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  airing  your  day  clothing  when 
you  retire  to  bed  at  night.  It  will  be  just  as  easy  to 
hang  your  clothes  over  the  back  of  a  chair  by  an  open 
window  as  to  throw  them  here,  there  and  everywhere ; 
and  when  you  rise  in  the  morning,  do  the  same  with 
your  night  garment. 

Don't  eat  snow.  Pure  and  clean  as  it  looks,  it  is 
full  of  disease  germs  and  impurities  that  it  has  carried 
down  from  the  atmosphere.  Frolic  and  play  in  it  all 
you  wish,  but  do  not  eat  it. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  eating  air.  The  native  of 
Hindustan  recognizes  as  one  of  the  differences  between 
a  dog  and  a  man,  the  superior  breathing  capacity 
of  the  latter.  For  example:  we  say  in  English,  "A 
dog  walks  out,"  and  "A  man  walks  out;"  but  in 
Hindustan  the  expression  is,  "A  dog  walks  out, ' '  and 
' '  A  man  goes  forth  eating  air. ' '  This  expression  is  said 
to  be  more  than  three  thousand  years  old.  "  Eating  air  " 
consists  in  expanding  the  lungs  with  air,  as  already 
described,  and  you  should  cultivate  the  practice  of  this 
habit  on  every  possible  occasion. 

Be  cheerful.  ' '  You  can  do  something  to  encourage 
yourself  in  serenity  of  aspect  and  demeanor,"  says 
Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  "keeping  your  infirmities 
and  troubles  in  the  background,  instead  of  making 
them  the  staple  of  conversation.  This  piece  of  advice, 
if  followed,  may  be  worth  from  three  to  five  years  of 
life  to  you." 


:104  HYGIENE. 

Always  thoroughly  dry  your  hands  after  washing 
them,  particularly  in  winter.  Many  persons  will  hur- 
riedly dry  the  hands,  leaving  considerable  moisture 
between  the  lingers,  and  such  a  condition  is  most  fa- 
vorable for  the  production  of  "chapped  hands."  Dry 
each  finger  separately  and  thoroughly. 

If  you  ask  any  very  old  person  the  secret  of  his 
longevity,  you  will  almost  always  learn  that  he  has 
acquired  the  habits  of  abstemiousness  and  regularity. 
Von  Moltke,  the  great  German  soldier,  when  90  years 
of  age,  would  rise  at  five  in  the  morning,  make  his 
own  cup  of  coffee  over  a  spirit  lamp,  and  busy  himself 
with  farm  and  garden  until  10  o'clock,  when  he  took  a 
bowl  of  soup  or  a  biscuit,  after  which  he  attended  to 
business  until  1  o'clock.  From  1  to  2  he  rested.  At 
2  he  dined  sparingly,  and  worked  again  till  friends 
dropped  in,  with  whom  he  talked  or  walked  until  his  8 
o'clock  tea,  and  at  10  he  was  in  bed.  Of  course, 
we  cannot  expect  children  and  young  men  and  women 
to  be  so  very  regular  in  their  habits,  but  the  sooner 
you  become  abstemious  and  regular,  the  better  will  be 
your  health  and  the  longer  will  be  your  life. 

Chewing  of  tobacco  is  a  habit,  and  a  very  nasty 
habit,  to  say  nothing  of  its  unheal thfulness.  A  mouth 
full  of  tobacco,  with  offensive  saliva  flowing  out  of  the 
angles  of  the  mouth,  and  tobacco  stained  teeth,  is  a 
very  repulsive  sight.  The  story  is  told  of  a  certain 
preacher  "out  West,"  who,  while  a  good  man  in  his 
way,  had  this  unfortunate  habit  of  chewing  tobacco. 
One  day  he  was  riding  on  horseback  through  the  conn- 


HABITS    AND    CUSTOMS.  395 

try  when  there  came  up  a  shower.  Riding  up  to  a 
cabin  he  hastily  hitched  his  horse,  and  knocked  at  the 
door.  A  sharp-looking  old  lady  answered  the  sum- 
mons. The  preacher  asked  for  shelter.  "I  don't  take 
in  strangers — I  don't  know,"  replied  the  lady,  suspi- 
ciously. "But  you  know  what  the  Bible  says,"  said 
the  preacher — "Be  not  forgetful  to  entertain  strangers, 
for,  thereby,  some  have  entertained  angels  unawares." 
"You  needn't  quote  Bible,"  said  the  old  lady,  quickly. 
"  No  angel  would  come  down  from  Heaven  with  a  quid 
of  tobacco  in  liis  mouth,  as  you  have.''''  The  door  was 
shut,  and  the  preacher  unhitched  his  horse  and  rode 
away  in  the  rain. 

Smoking  of  tobacco  is  but  a  habit;  there  is  no  sense 
or  reason  in  it;  it  is  a  habit  the  cultivation  of  which 
causes  most  boys  many  spells  of  sickness.  Let  it 
alone ;  you  will  be  thankful  in  after  life  if  you  follow 
this  advice. 

A  strong,  hearty  baggage-man  who  could  with 
apparent  ease  elevate  a  modern  Saratoga  trunk,  was 
recently  the  object  of  the  most  intense  admfration  to 
a  boy  of  twelve,  whose  greatest  ambition  is  to  be 
strong,  and  who  would  rather  be  John  Sullivan  than 
President  Cleveland.  "What  do  you  eat,"  this  mod- 
ern Hercules  was  asked,  "to  make  you  so  strong?" 
"Oatmeal,"  was  the  reply;  "a  good  big  dish  of  it 
every  morning  for  breakfast.  There  is  nothing  better," 
he  added,  "and  being  cheap  it  is  within  the  reach  of 
all,  even  the  poorest."  Learn  a  lesson  from  this  man, 
and  never   start   off    to   school   in   the   morning   without 


396  HYGIENE. 

some  food  in  your  stomach.  When  a  mother  tells  me 
that  her  boy  or  girl  will  not  eat  breakfast,  and  comes 
home  from  school  at  noon  weak,  languid  and  com- 
plaining of  headache,  my  advice  is  to  place  before 
this  child  some  oatmeal,  or  steak,  or  whatever  there 
may  be  for  breakfast,  and  give  the  child  the  choice 
between  eating  it  or  spending  the  day  in  bed.  Do  not 
scold ;  do  not  be  cross ;  merely  explain  kindly  that  if 
no  breakfast  is  eaten  the  body  will  be  weak  and 
unequal  to  the  tasks  of  the  day ;  very  few  children 
will  choose  to  remain  in  bed  all  day,  and  the  breakfast 
will  usually  be  eaten. 

He  who  gives  loose  reins  to  passion  or  inclination 
soon  forms  habits  of  pernicious  tendency  that  will  be 
most  difficult  to  overcome;  while  those  who  persistently 
struggle  against  the  tide  of  evil  that  eventually  seems 
so  easy  to  us,  and  try  for  better  things,  will  soon 
form  habits  that  help  to  improve  the  physical  as  well 
as  the  moral  nature.  Habits,  like  rivers,  have  small 
beginnings ;  but  as  their  lines  begin  to  lengthen  their 
force  increases,  until  at  last,  borne  on  by  this  resist- 
less sway,  we  are  powerless  to  check  our  course.  In 
youth  we  form  habits  that  cling  to  us  through  lifetime 
with  a  pertinacity  that  shows  their  mastery  of  us, 
hence  we  must  be  very  careful  to  cultivate  healthful 
habits. 


HABITS   AND   CUSTOMS.  897 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

478.  What  do  you  say  of  human  beings  as  creatures  of  habit,  and 
how  is  habit  controlled  and  corrected  ? 

479.  What  guides  the  actions  of  the  mass  of  humanity  ? 

480.  Why  should  we  cultivate  hygienic  habits  ? 

481.  How  may  we  control  our  bodily  actions? 

482.  What  do  you  say  of  biting  the  nails  ? 

483.  What  of  cleanliness  as  a  habit  ? 

484.  What  of  putting  coins  in  the  mouth  ? 

485.  What  about  "  hurry  and  worry  "  ? 

486.  What  about  temper  ?  give  some  illustrations  of  the  fatal  results 
of  losing  one's  temper. 

487.  Why  should  we  always  look  for  the  bright  side  of  everything? 

488.  What  about  quarrels  and  disputes? 

489.  What  do  you  say  about  taking  offense? 

490.  What  about  excess  ? 

491.  What  about  looking  for  trouble? 

492.  What  about  habits  of  eating  ? 

493.  Why  should  we  breathe  through  the  nose? 

494.  What  do  you  say  of  the  spitting  habit  ? 

495.  What  about  cleaning  the  teeth  ? 

496.  How  should  we  stand  ? 

497.  What  of  dirty  finger-nails  ? 

498.  Give  an  anecdote  illustrating  the  value  of  the  bathing  habit  ? 

499.  What  about  the  habit  of  drinking  water? 

500.  What  do  you  say  of  frugality  ;  of  self-control ;  of  fun ;  of  eat- 
ing candy? 

501.  What  is  the  "  kiss  of  disease  and  death  ? " 


398  HYGIENE. 

502.  What  about  raising  the  hat  in  salute  ? 

503.  What  do  you  say  about  airing  your  clothing? 

504.  What  do  you  say  about  "  eating  snow  "  ? 

505.  What  do  you  mean  by  "  eating  air  "  ? 

506.  What  about  cheerfulness? 

507.  What  is  a  fruitful  cause  of  chapped  hands  ? 

508.  What  about  abstemiousness  and  regularity  ? 

509.  Is  tobacco-chewing  a  habit  ? 

.510.  What  about  smoking  of  tobacco? 

511.  What  do  you  say  about  starting  to  school  on  an  empty  stom- 
ach? 


RELIGION   AND    HEALTH. 


399 


CHAPTER  XXX. 


RELIGION  AND  HEALTH. 


Before  the  International  Congress  of  Hygiene,  held 
a  few  years  ago,  in  London,  Mr.  Ogle  presented  sta- 
tistics as  to  the  comparative  mortality  among  those 
between  twenty-five  and  sixty-five  years  of  age,  en- 
gaged in  various  occupations  in  England.  The  death- 
rate  among  clergymen  being  the  least,  this  was  taken 
as  a  standard  of  comparison.  The  following  table 
presents   the   comparative   mortality : 


Clergymen, 

100 

Hatters, 

19.2 

Gardeners, 

.     108 

Printers, 

193 

Farmers, 

114 

Cotton  workers, 

196 

Paper  makers, 

.     129 

Clerks, 

199 

Grocers, 

139 

Physicians, 

202 

Fishermen, 

.     143 

Bookbinders, 

210 

Cabinet  makers,   . 

148 

Butchers, 

211 

Lawyers, 

.     152 

Glass  makers, 

214 

Mechanics, 

155 

Plumbers  and  painter? 

j,  216 

Tradesmen, 

.     158 

Cutlers, 

229 

Shoemakers, 

166 

Brewers, 

245 

Barbers, 

.     172 

Omnibus  drivers, 

267 

Upholsterers, 

173 

Wine  merchants, 

274 

Masons, 

.     174 

Potters, 

314 

Laborers, 

185 

Miners, 

331 

Wool  workers, 

.     186 

Hotel  waiters, 

397 

Tailors, 

189 

I   might    stop    right    here,    say    no    more,    and   yet 


400  HYGIENE. 

claim  that  I  have  indisputably  proven  that  a  religious 
life  is  a  healthful  life ;  that  religion  and  hygiene  go 
hand-in-hand ;  that  he  who  practices  the  teachings  of 
religion  is  also  (perhaps  unconsciously)  practicing  the 
teachings  of  hygiene;  for  we  here  have  undoubted 
evidence,  that  among  those  whose  life-work  is  the 
teaching  of  religion,  among  those  most  familiar  with 
religion,  the  death-rate  is  the  lowest  that  obtains  among 
all  classes  of  humanity. 

But  I  will  go  further,  and  tell  you  that  many 
years  ago,  on  my  journey  from  Frascati  (near  Rome) 
to  Tusculum,  where  I  was  to  view  the  site  of  Cicero's 
villa,  I  halted  at  the  entrance  to  the  monastery  of  the 
Camaldolese  monks,  where  I  had  the  unique  satis- 
faction of  inspecting  a  body  of  men  who  never  speak. 
An  inflexible  rule  of  this  order  is  silence,  save  among 
those  who  come  into  contact  with  the  outside  world 
in  the  intercourse  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  community.  After  I  entered  the  building,  I  found 
in  a  little  cell,  not  more  than  6  by  8  feet,  an  old 
man  who  had  been  bed-ridden  for  twenty-five  years. 
His  great  age,  and  the  fact  that  he  had  been  at  one 
time  of  the  world  and  worldly,  was  to  be  found  in 
the  statement  that,  in  early  life,  he  had  been  a 
soldier  under  the  first  Napoleon.  Stop  for  a  moment 
and  realize  if  you  can  what  it  means  to  lie  on  your 
back  in  a  bare-walled  room,  6  by  8  feet,  for  twenty- 
five  years.  Yet  this  venerable  old  man  was  one  of 
the  happiest,  jolliest  mortals  I  have  ever  met.  Because 
of    his  affliction   he   was   allowed   to   talk,    and   when   I 


RELIGION    AND    HEALTH.  401 

asked  him  if  he  was  not  unhappy  and  depressed  by 
his  condition,  his  eyes  twinkled  merrily,  and  with  an 
unmistakable  expression  of  joy  and  satisfaction  he 
assured  me  that  he  was  the  happiest  of  mortals,  because 
he  was  suffering  all  the  time  for  God's  sake;  religion 
taught  him  to  accept  his  lot  in  patience,  and  one  of  the 
principal  lessons  of  hygiene  teaches  us  the  same  thing. 
From  this  extreme  case,  let  us  transfer  our  thoughts 
to  the  various  religious  communities  of  men  and  women 
that  exist  throughout  the  world,  and  learn  therefrom  a 
most  salutary  lesson.  The  desire  to  serve  God  is  the 
foundation  stone  of  all  these  communities ;  yet  if  I  were 
to  outline  a  constitution  for  the  organization  of  a  Com- 
munity of  Sanitarians,*  I  could  hardly  improve  upon 
the  rules  and  regulations  of  a  religious  community. 
The  members  of  these  communities  are  not  fatalists 
by  any  manner  of  means,  yet,  believing  that  their 
actions  are  ultimately  guided  and  controlled  by  a 
higher  intelligence  than  that  of  humanity,  they  are 
ever  ready  to  accept  that  which  happens  as  for  the 
best,  while  vain  and  useless  repinings  for  what  might 
have  been,  but  is  not.  has  no  place  in  their  breasts. 
They  are  not  fatalists,  for  they  use  their  intelligence 
to  the  best  of  their  ability ;  but  whatever  may  be 
the  result,  it  is  accepted  as  for  the  best.  In  this  one 
fact  alone  is  found  the  essence  of  hygienic  philosophy, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  aids  to  health  and  long  life. 
Serenity  of  mind  and  freedom  from  worry  are  the  inev- 

*A   Sanitarian   is   a   person   who  believes   in   and  practices  the  teachings  of 
hygiene. 


402  HYGIENE. 

itable   outcome   of   this   frame   of   mind,  and   nothing  is 
more   conducive  to  long  life. 

Regularity ',  that  ke  //stone  of  health,  is  a  marked 
characteristic  of  religious  communities;  regular  hours 
for  meals;  regular  hours  for  sleep;  regularity  and  sys- 
tem in  work  and  recreation;  obedience  to  authority, 
which  implies  self-control;  conscientious  regularity  in 
everything  is  pre-eminently  characteristic  of  these  men 
and  women.  While  it  would  not  do  for  all  of  us  to 
be  members  of  religious  communities,  yet  there  are  no 
happier  persons  on  the  face  of  this  earth,  and  this 
very  happiness  is  unquestionably  due  to  the  wisdom 
of  the  way  in  which  their  lives  are  ordained.  "My 
brother"  (says  the  Rev.  Dr.  Talmage),  "your  trouble 
is  not  with  your  heart,  it  is  a  gastric  disorder  or  a 
rebellion  of  the*  liver.  You  need  a  physician  more 
than  you  do  a  clergyman.  It  is  not  sin  that  blots  out 
your  hope  of  heaven,  but  bile.  It  not  only  yellows 
your  eyeball,  and  furs  your  tongue,  and  makes  your 
head  ache,  but  it  swoops  upon  your  soul  in  dejections 
and  forebodings." 

The  Rev.  T.  T.  Munger,  D.D.,  tells  us  that  "A 
good  body  well  cared  for  and  well  used  is  not  only 
on  the  side  of  virtue,  but  is  one  of  its  chief  fort- 
resses,   the  greatest  of  all  helps  towards  chastity." 

It  is  related  of  a  Bengal ese  tribe,  the  Oswals,  of 
Marwar,  that  while  cholera  rages  on  all  sides  of  them, 
not  one  has  ever  taken  the  disease,  and  they  attrib- 
ute this  immunity  to  their  sanitary  rules,  which  form 
apart  of  their   religious  belief. 


RELIGION   AND   HEALTH.  403 

"  Onr  Great  Example  commanded  His  first  followers 
to  heal  the  sick  and  give  alms,  but  he  commands  us 
(says  Dr.  C.  G.  Wheelhonse,  the  President  of  the 
British  Medical  Association)  and  all  His  followers,  in 
this  age,  to  master  the  science  of  health,  and  to  con- 
sider the  question  of  education  with  a  view  to  health." 

The  Rev.  Thomas  R.  Beeber  says:  "A  Christian  is 
a  man  who  accepts  the  principles  of  the  Bible  as  the 
law  of  his  life.  A  sanitarian  is  a  man  who  aims  to 
keep  the  body  in  health  by  perfecting  its  physical  con- 
ditions. The  principles  of  the  Word  of  God  will  make 
the  Christian  a  sanitarian ;  the  whole  Bible  emphasizes 
reverence  for  the  body,  which  is  the  temple  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  The  Christian  is  under  obligation  to  be  a  sani- 
tarian from  the  principles  of  Christianity,  from  its 
aims,  from  its  history.  There  is  but  one  thing  he  needs 
— education.  By  educating  the  Christian  conscience 
you  have  made  him  in  the  past  an  enemy  of  the  lot- 
tery, of  slavery,  yjolygamy,  of  gambling  and  liquor  sell- 
ing. Educate  the  conscience  of  the  Christian  to-day, 
and  you  will  have  an  enemy  of  foul  air  and  foul 
water,  and  a  supporter  of  all  hygienic  forces  and  laws." 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Carson,  of  Ottawa,  speaking  from  the 
pulpit  on  the  "New  Gospel  of  Health,"  says,  "I  call 
it  the  new  gospel  because  it  is  a  part  of  the  revelation 
contained  in  the  Testaments  of  God.  My  object  in 
bringing  the  subject  into  the  pulpit  and  making  it  a 
part  of  my  teaching,  is  to  show  that  it  is  a  part  of 
the  gospel  which  I  preach,  and  is  included  in  the 
scheme    of    divine  government  as    given    to   us  in   the 


404  HYGIENE. 

Holy  Book.     We  must  teach  that  sanitary  science  is  as, 
much   a    law   of   God   as   the   Ten   Commandments,  and 
that  obedience  will   bring  reward  and  disobedience  pun- 
ishment. ' ' 

Deprive  a  man  of  his  bath  and  you  lower  his  moral 
tone;  "  soapology"  and  "  scriibology, "  as  well  as  the- 
ology, are  recognized  by  General  Booth,  of  The  Salvation 
Army,  as  potent  Christianizing  agencies. 

The  Bible  is  one  of  the  very  best  text-books  on 
hygiene  that  has  ever  been  written ;  he  who  strictly 
follows  its  teachings  will  be  a  perfect  sanitarian.  "We 
must  learn,"  says  a  distinguished  writer,  "to  regard 
physical  as  well  as  moral  sins  as  greatly  displeasing 
in  the  sight  of  God" 

Have  I  not  said  enough  to  convince  anyone  that 
religion  and  hygiene  are  twin-sisters — the  one  minister- 
ing to  the  health  of  the  soul,  the  other  caring  for  the 
health  of  the  body?  While  you  may  love  your  mother 
far  more  than  you  love  the  house  in  which  she  dwells, 
yet  if  you  really  love  her,  you  will  be  careful  to  see  that 
she  is  afforded  opportunity  to  keep  her  home  in  a  con- 
dition that  you  will  consider  worthy  of  her ;  so,  while 
God  loves  the  immortal  soul  with  an  infinite  love,  it 
is  but  logical  to  believe  that  He  wishes  us  to  preserve 
the  body,  which  He  has  made  as  a  residence  for  the 
soul,  in  a  condition  worthy  of  its  august  resident. 

In  conclusion,  a  person  cannot  be  religious  with- 
out thereby  observing  the  laws  of  hygiene.  This  is  a 
truism  that  has  forced  itself  upon  me  as  the  result 
of  years   of    reflection,    and   I   am   particularly    anxious 


RELIGION   AND   HEALTH.  405 

that  it  should  be  impressed  upon  the  rising  generation. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  teachings  of  religion  but  will 
redound  to  the  welfare  of  the  body,  and  there  is 
nothing  in  the  teachings  of  hygiene  but  will  redound 
to  the  good  of  the  soul. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

512.  What  of  the  comparative  mortality  of  -  different  occupations; 
what  is  the  least  ? 

513.  How  can  you  prove  indisputably  that  religion  and  hygiene  go 
hand-in-hand  ? 

514.  Tell  about  the  Camaldolese  monks. 

515.  What  lesson  is  taught  alike  by  religion  and  hygiene? 

516.  What  do  you  say  of  religious  communities  as  sanitary  models? 

517.  What  about  regularity  as  the  keystone  of  health? 

518.  What  do  eminent  men  say  about  religion  and  hygiene? 

519.  What  is  a  Christian,  and  what   are  his  obligations;  what  will 
make  the  Christian  a  sanitarian  ? 

520.  Does  the  Bible  emphasize  reverence  for  the  body  ? 

521.  When  you  educate  the  conscience  of  the  Christian  what  will 
you  have  ? 

522.  What  of  the  "  New  Gospel  of  Health  "  ? 

523.  What  about  scrubology  and  soapology  f 

524.  What  is  the  best  text-book  on  hygiene? 

525.  What  do  you  say  of  physical  sins  ? 

526.  Why  is  it  logical  to  believe  that  God  wishes  us  to  care  for  the 
body? 

527.  .Can  a  person   be    religious  without   observing   the   laws  of 
hygiene  ? 


406  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 
SOCIETY    AND    HEALTH. 

I  have  only  a  few  words  to  say  on  this  subject, 
because  there  is  no  scope  for  discussion;  a  fact  only 
can  be  asserted.  It  would  not  take  much  space  to 
prove  that  four  times  two  make  eight,  because  such 
is  a  fact  beyond  the  province  of  dispute. 

It  is  only  because  I  desire  to  cover  every  point 
that  I  introduce  the  question  of  the  influence  of 
society  upon  health.  Unwelcome  as  the  assertion  may 
be  to  my  young  readers,  I  must  yet  assert  to  them 
the  fact  that  fashionable  society  of  to-day  and  health 
are  incompatible. 

I  am  sorry  to  feel  obliged  to  say  this,  because 
most  young  people  erroneously  think  that  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  pleasure  in  "society,"  and  they  look 
forward  to  their  entrance  into  ' '  society ' '  with  won- 
derfully rosy  anticipations.  It  seems  a  pity  to  say 
anything  that  will  dampen  these  ardent  spirits;  but 
were  I  to  remain  silent  on  this  point,  I  would  justly 
deserve  the  reproaches  which  would  be  heaped  upon 
me  by  those  whose  health  had  been  ruined  by  "soci- 
ety," when,  having  reached  mental  maturity,  they 
looked  back  upon  the  physical  mistakes  of  their  early 
lives. 


SOCIETY   AJSTD   HEALTH.  407 

Clearly  understand  me,  that  I  do  not  mean  friend- 
ship, sociability,  comradeship  or  social  intercourse  when 
I  speak  of  society,  but  that  I  am  to  be  understood 
as  referring  to  the  dissipation,  loss  of  sleep,  irregular 
eating  of  unhealthful  food,  improper  methods  of  dress, 
unnatural  and  excessive  excitement  or  stimulation,  and 
corresponding  depression,  the  indolence  and  neglect  of 
exercise,  and  the  thousand  and  one  accessories  of  fash- 
ionable society. 

We  have  already  seen  that  the  most  healthful 
mode  of  life  is  that  pursued  by  religious  communi- 
ties; let  us  take  this  life  as  one  type,  and  the  life  of 
the  fashionable  society  man  or  woman  as  the  other. 
Your  own  observation  will  make  evident  to.  you  the 
fact  that  these  two  tyj)es  are  diametrically  opj)osed  to 
each  other.  I  am  not  advocating  or  recommending  indi- 
vidual seclusion,  far  from  it;  there  are  no  more  social, 
companionable,  genial  persons  in  the  world  than  mem- 
bers of  religious  communities ;  they  are  by  no  means 
the  melancholy,  dejected  recluses  that  those  unfamiliar 
with  them  imagine. 

All  the  healthful  pleasures  of  the  world  they  enjoy; 
it  is  only  the  artificial  and  deceptive  seeming  pleasures 
that  they  avoid. 

The  most  distinguished  surgeon  of  America  recently 
said :  ' '  There  is  no  tyranny  more  exacting  or  despotic 
than  that  exercised  by  the  conventionalities  which  gov- 
ern our  living.  Beyond  all  contradiction,  the  behests 
of  fashion  are  vastly  more  influential  in  governing  pub- 
lic conduct  than  any  arguments   drawn  from  the  teach- 


408  HYGIENE. 

ings  of  structure  and  function.  As  a  rule,  when  the 
conflict  is  between  taste  and  reason,  the  victory  will 
be  on  the  side  of  taste." 

I  full  well  realize  the  truth  of  what  this  eminent 
man  has  said,  and  I  will  not  waste  time,  ink  and 
paper  in  writing  against  society.  Your  own  judg- 
ment and  reason  will  tell  you  that  if  you  wish  to 
follow  the  advice  and  teachings  of  this  book,  you 
cannot  participate  in  the  follies  of  fashionable  society; 
if  you  decide  to  do  otherwise,  you  must  accept  the 
inevitable  penalty  of  ill-health  and  short  life. 

With  this  unquestionable  assertion  we  will  drop 
the  subject. 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

528.  Is  fashionable  society  compatible  with  health? 

529.  Do  you  include  friendship  and  sociability  in  this  assertion  ? 

530.  What  of  the  sociability  of  members  of  religious  communities  ? 

531.  What  has  been  said  of  fashion  by  America's  most  distinguished 
surgeon  ? 


EDUCATION   AND   HEALTH.  409 


CHAPTER   XXXII. 
EDUCATION    AND    HEALTH. 

I  have  a  sort  of  a  notion  that  education  does  not 
of  itself  conduce  to  health  and  happiness.  I  have  an 
idea  that  in  the  "dark  ages,"  when  all  the  learning 
of  the  world  was  confined  to  the  monks,  and  the 
masses  blindly  and  unquestioning!  y  followed  their 
advice  in  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  matters,  that 
the  masses  of  the  people  were  happier  than  they  are 
to-day,  when  each  individual  unit  of  humanity  is  being 
educated  into  a  thinking,  reasoning,  questioning,  skep- 
tical organism. 

Whether  right  or  wrong,  this  idea  is  not  in  accord 
with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  I  do  not  ask  its 
acceptance. 

Education,  rightly  understood,  is  designed  to  make 
us  better  able  to  fulfill  the  designs  of  our  Creator  in 
this  world,  and  more  worthy  of  the  reward  that  is  in 
store  for  us  in  the  next.  When,  after  the  "dark 
ages,"  the  reaction  set  in,  all  educational  thought  was 
directed  towards  the  training  of  the  mind,  with  but 
little  thought  of  the  body.  The  folly  and  danger  of 
this  course  will  be  readily  understood  when  we 
remember  that  while  we  cannot  see  and  touch  and 
weigh  the  mind,  yet  it  is  in  reality  a  product  <>/  the  hod//. 


410  HYGIENE. 

Let  me  make  this  point  clear  by  a  familiar  illus- 
tration :  Electricity  is  doing  wonderful  things  in  these 
days;  but  what  is  electricity?  You  cannot  see  it,  nor 
taste  it,  nor  weigh,  nor  measure  it;  it  is  a  force,  but 
an  invisible,  an  intangible  one.  It  is  a  force  generated 
by  the  working  of  a  machine,  and  if  this  machine  be 
not  kept  in  good  order,  the  force  cannot  long  be  gen- 
erated. If  the  sole  thought  of  the  engineer,  in  charge 
of  this  machine,  is  to  get  from  it  all  the  electrical 
force  that  he  can  drive  it  to  generate,  regardless  of 
the  wear  and  tear  of  the  machine,  he  will  succeed 
admirably  well  for  a  time,  but  the  hour  will  surely 
come  when  the  machine  will  break  down  and  no  more 
electricity  will  be  made. 

That  which  happens  to  the  machine  of  iron  will 
also  happen  to  our  human  machine.  Mind  is  an  invis- 
ible force  that  is  largely  dependent  upon  our  bodies, 
and  our  bodies  are  made  out  of  the  food  we  eat.  If  our 
educational  j>rocesses  are  designed  so  as  to  develop  all 
the  mind  that  is  possible,  regardless  of  the  welfare  of 
the  body,  upon  which  the  healthy  development  of  the 
mind  so  largely  depends,  the  results  for  a  time  will  be 
brilliant,  but  before  long  the  body  will  break  down. 

' '  Mens  sana  in  cor  pore  sano  ' '  (a  sound  mind  in 
a  sound  body)  has  been  so  frequently  quoted  that  I 
hesitate  to  introduce  it,  yet  it  fitly  expresses  what 
should  be  the  true  aim  of  education.  That  the  mind 
may  be  developed  in  a  healthful  manner,  it  is  absolutely 
essential .  that  the  body  must  be  correspondingly  cared 
for.     With  my  own  child  I  would  much  rather  have  a 


EDUCATION   AND   HEALTH.  411 

"healthy  ignoramus"  than  an  educated  invalid;  but 
fortunately  there  is  no  necessity  for  either  of  these 
extremes. 

What  would  you  think  .of  a  railroad  company  that 
would  take  a  man  from  the  street,  without  any  pre- 
vious education,  and  put  him  into  a  locomotive  to  run 
it,  telling  him  to  put  coal  in  the  furnace  and  water 
in  the  boiler  ?  He  would  get  steam,  and  this  very  steam 
would  blow  him  and  everybody  about  him  into 
eternity.  The  engineer  not  only  knows  how  to  make 
steam,  but  he  is  also  familiar  with  every  separate  part  of 
his  locomotive  and  the  relations  that  these  various 
parts  bear,  the  one  to  the  other;  he  is  capable  of 
taking  his  locomotive  apart  and  putting  it  together 
again;  in  a  word,  he  has  studied  the  anatomy  of  his 
machine.  But  even  more  than  this,  he  knows  the 
duty  of  each  part,  what  work  each  part  must  do  in 
the  working  of  the  whole;  he  has  studied  the  physi- 
ology of  his  machine.  Yet  still  more,  he  knows  how 
to  use  the  different  parts  so  that  they  will  produce 
the  best  results  with  the  least  amount  of  wear  and 
tear;  he  has  studied  the  hygiene  of  his  machine.  The 
engineer,  thus  thoroughly  equipped,  will  run  his  loco- 
motive day  after  day,  week  after  week,  month  after 
month,  year  after  year,  until  it  finally  wears  out  of  old 
age;  while  the  man  who  only  knew  that  lire  and  water 
make  steam,  and  that  steam  produces  motion,  would  have 
ruined  this  same  locomotive  in  a  very  short  time. 

The  boy  or  girl  who  eats  and  studies,  realizing  only 
that  the  mind  is  to  be  cultivated  to  the  utmost,  is  like 


412  HYGIENE. 

the  man  from  the  street  who  ruins  his  locomotive;  the 
boy  or  girl  who  knows  something  about  his  or  her  body 
and  its  care,  who  realizes  that  care  of  the  body  will 
conduce  to  healthy  development  of  the  mind,  is  akin 
to  the  educated  engineer. 

Of  course,  the  fundamental  principles  of  education 
are  laid  down  by  the  school  authorities,  just  as  the 
fundamental  principles  of  a  machine  have  been  devised 
by  others  than  those  who  run  it;  but  the  individual 
application  of  these  principles  is  in  the  power  of  the 
pupil   or  the  engineer. 

The  habits  that  have  been  already  recommended 
can  be  suggested  by  the  teacher,  but  they  must  be 
cultivated  by  each  individual  pupil  for  himself;  the 
teacher  cannot  cultivate  them  for  you.  The  teacher 
cannot  breathe  into  your  lungs ;  you  must  do  that  for 
yourself ;  and  so  it  is  with  the  actual  application  of  all 
the  rules  of  personal  hygiene.  Your  teacher  can  tell 
you  how  to  avoid  sin,  but  you  yourself  must  do  the 
avoiding;  so  your  teacher  can  tell  you  how  to  be 
healthy,  but  you  yourself  must  do  what  you  are 
told. 

What  is  needed  to-day  is  a  higher  development  of 
the  moral  faculties,  so  that  the  rising  generation  will 
come  to  consider  the  possession  of  health  as  something 
to  be  proud  of,  and  the  presence  of  disease  as  some- 
thing to  be  ashamed  of;  we  are  in  need  of  an  "Aris- 
tocracy of  Health." 

"Take  care  of  your  health,"  venerable  President 
Patton   tells  the  Princeton  boys.     "You  may  not  need 


EDUCATION    AND    HEALTH.  413 

binomial  tlieorems,  but  you  will  need  your  digestion 
every  day.  I  wish  that  years  ago  I  had  thought  more 
about  my  own  health.  A  frequently  recurring  head- 
ache, a  bad  appetite  and  sleeplessness,  are  solemn  warn- 
ings that  you  must  heed.  Dyspepsia  is  not  a  thing 
to  be   made   fun   of." 

In  this  matter  of  hygiene,  the  children  must  become 
the  educators  of  their  parents,  and  they  must  tell  their 
parents  that  schools  are  liot-beds  of  contagious  diseases, 
and  that  they  will  continue  to  be  so  in  spite  of  every 
precaution  on  the  part  of  the  school  authorities,  and 
of  all  sanitary  legislation,  until  the  parents  become 
alive  to   their   duty  in  this   matter. 

I  have  had  three  epidemics  of  contagious  disease 
in  my  own  family :  one  of  measles,  one  of  mumps,  and 
one  of  whooping-cough;  and  in  each  instance  the  dis- 
ease was  carried  home  from  school  by  one  of  my  chil- 
dren, just  as  surely  as  he  carried  home  his  books. 
Yet  I  do  not  blame  the  authorities  of  the  school  for 
allowing  these  diseases  to  come  into  my  family;  but  I 
most  emphatically  do  hold  responsible  the  parents 
whose  children  having  this  disease,  or  having  been  ex- 
posed to  it,  have  allowed  them  to  attend  school  and 
give  the  disease  to  my  children.  Hitherto,  parents 
have  not  been  informed  on  this  subject,  and  they  have 
sinned  through  ignorance.  But  hereafter  if  any  parenl 
that  reads  this  book  allows  any  child  that  has  been 
exposed  to  disease  to  go  to  school,  such  parent  must 
feel  that  he  or  she  has  been  guilty  of  a  grievous  sin 
in  the  sight  of  God  and  man,  and  any  deaths  that  may 


414  HYGIENE. 

occur  from  this  neglect  may  be  justly  laid  directly 
at   the  door  of  such  parent. 

The  school  authorities  cannot  justly  be  held  respon- 
sible, because  there  is  no  way  in  which  they  can  tell 
that  a  child  has  been  exposed  to  disease,  while  some 
disease  may  be  working  in  their  bodies  for  days  before 
it  may  become  manifest;  but  in  the  very  great  major- 
ity of  cases,  any  respectable  parent  will  know  that 
the  child  has  been  exposed. 

Again,  I  can  put  a  handful  of  corn  into  my  pocket, 
sail  out  to  Bombay,  plant  it  in  suitable  soil  and  it  will 
grow;  it  did  not  grow  in  my  pocket,  because  the  con- 
ditions therein  were  not  favorable  for  its  growth;  all 
the  same  I  was  the  means  of  conveying  this  corn 
from  America  to  India.  So,  I  believe  that  a  child 
whose  body  is  not  favorable  for  the  development  of 
a  germ  disease  may,  if  exposed  thereto,  convey  the 
germs  to  some  other  child  who  will  take  the  disease, 
even  though  the  child  that  has  conveyed  it  may  escape. 

The  duty  of  the  parent  is  transparently  clear,  yet 
there  are  many  parents  whose  moral  obliquity  is  so 
great  that  nothing  short  of  fine  and  imprisonment  will 
open  their  eyes. 

Suppose  Mrs.  Smith  sends  Johnny  to  school,  know- 
ing that  it  is  his  positive  and  unalterable  determination 
to  fight  with  Tommy  Jones  and  possibly  to  injure  him 
for  life,  maybe,  even  to  kill  him;  what  would  you 
think  of.  Mrs.   Smith? 

You  ought  to  think  what  I  would  think  of  Mrs. 
Brown,  who    allows    Bobby   to   go  to    school  when    she 


EDUCATION  AND  HEALTH.  415 

knows  that  he  has  been  exposed  to  some  contagious 
disease,  and  that  he  will  be  very  likely  to  give  this 
disease  to  many  of  his  school  companions,  and  to  kill 
several  of  them.  And  what  would  I  think  of  Mrs. 
Brown?  That  she  is  utterly  unfit  to  have  the  care  of 
children,  and  that  her  utter  lack  of  sense  of  duty  to 
her  neighbors  makes  her  a  dangerous  woman  to  be  at 
large. 

What  I  have  said  about  schools  applies  equally  to 
any  place  where  numbers  of  persons  congregate.  It 
would  seem  as  though  this  might  be  taken  for  granted 
were  it  not  that  the  following  conversation,  recently 
overheard  on  the  street,  compels  me  to  think  other- 
wise : 

Johnny — "Ain't  you  going  to  school,  Jim?" 

Jimmie — "No,  we've  got  the  scarlet  fever  at  our 
house,  and  the  doctor  says  I  can't  go  to  school;  I'm 
going  to   the   circus  this   afternoon." 

You  will  remember  that  the  period  of  incubation 
is  the  time  that  elapses  between  the  entrance  of  the 
germs  into  the  body  and  the  first  evident  manifesta- 
tions of  disease;    for 

Dipldheria,  the  average  period  of  incubation  is 
two  days;  more  rarely  four  days,  and  occasionally 
seven  days.  Infection  of  another  may  occur  at  any 
period  of  the  disease,  and  the  disease  may  be  com- 
municated by  contaminated  clothing  for  several  months 
after  exposure. 

Measles. — The  period  of  incubation  in  this  disease 
varies   from  four   to   sixteen  days.     The   danger  of  con- 


416  HYGIENE. 

tagion  exists  during  the  whole  course  of  the  disease, 
but   disappears   very   rapidly   after   convalescence. 

Scarlet  Fever. — The  period  of  incubation  is  very 
short,  rarely  reaching  six  days,  generally  two  days. 
The  contagious  elements  persist  a  long  time  after 
recovery. 

German  Measles. — The  incubation  period  of  this 
disease  is  very  variable,  the  average  being  about 
eighteen  days.  The  contagion  is  most  active  just 
before  the  appearance  of  the  eruption  and  during  its 
development.  The  contagious  period  continues  for  a 
short   time   after   the  eruption   is   fully   developed. 

Mumps. — The  incubation  period  is  the  same  as  that  for 
German  measles.  Contagion  is  greatest  during  the  first 
three  or  four  days. 

Small-pox. — The  average  incubation  period  is  twelve 
days ;  the  minimum,  nine  days ;  the  maximum,  fifteen 
days.  Contagion  may  occur  at  any  period  of  the  dis- 
ease. Infection  may  occur  through  personal  contact  or 
through  the  clothing. 

C7iiclcen-pox. — The  incubation  period  is  fourteen  to 
twenty  days.  It  is  less  contagious  than  small-pox,  and 
is  most  contagious  during  the  period  of  eruption. 

Typhoid-fever . — The  average  period  of  incubation  is 
twelve  or  fourteen  days ;  sometimes  nine  days ;  occasion- 
ally twenty-four  days.  Contagion  may  occur  at  any 
period  of  the  disease,  and  even  during  two  weeks 
after  recovery. 


EDUCATION    AND    HEALTH.  417 

QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

532.  Does  education  of  itself  conduce  to  health  and  happiness  ? 
583.  What  is  the  design  of  education,  rightly  understood  ? 

534.  How  do  you  compare  electricity  and  mind,  aud  how  will 
undue  development  of  either  ruin  the  machine  in  which  it  is 
developed  ? 

535.  What  do  you  mean  by  Mens  sana  in  corpore  sano,  and  what 
are  the  essential  conditions  of  its  acquirement  ? 

536.  Describe  the  cpaalifications  of  an  educated  locomotive  engineer, 
and  compare  him  to  one  who  is  familiar  with  his  own  body. 

537.  Can  the  school  authorities  compel  personal  hygiene? 

538.  What  is  an  "  Aristocracy  of  Health  "  ? 

539.  What  does  President  Patton  say  of  digestion  ? 

540.  What  about  schools  and  contagious  diseases? 

541.  Are  the  school  authorities  or  the  parents  responsible  for  these 
facts  ? 

542.  What  do  you  think  of  a  parent  who  allows  a  child  that  has 
been  exposed  to  contagious  disease  to  attend  school  ? 

543.  What  do  you  mean  by  the  "  period  of  incubation  "  ?  What  is 
it  for  diphtheria,  measles,  scarlet  fever,  German  measles,  mumps, 
small-pox,  chicken-pox,  typhoid  fever  ? 


418  HYGIENE. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
WATER. 

When  we  reflect  that  the  Creator  of  this  world 
made  two-thirds  of  it  water,  we  must  conclude  that  He 
intended  that  water  should  play  an  important  part  in 
His  designs  of  creation ;  and  when  we  learn  that  seven- 
tenths  of  the  weight  of  the  human  body  consists  of 
water,  we   are  still  more  impressed  with  its  importance. 

There  is  probably  no  one  single  agency  that  causes 
more  disease  than  foul  water,  while  there  is  nothing 
more  healthful  than  pure  water.  Let  us  clearly  under- 
stand what  we  mean  by  foul  and  pure.  Pure  water  is 
best  typified  by  rain  water  as  it  leaves  the  clouds ;  foul 
water  is  best  represented  by  the  water  of  a  river  into 
which  all  the  sewage  of  a  large  city  is  emptied,  while 
between  these  two  extremes  we  find  all  degrees  of 
purity  or  of  foulness. 

It  is  not  always  the  case  that  water  which  looks 
pure  and  sparkling  and  clear  really  is  so.  Muddy, 
cloudy-looking  water  is  not  necessarily  impure  water, 
so   far  as   the   production   of   disease  is   concerned. 

To  those  living  in  a  state  of  nature  wholesome 
water  is  always  accessible ;  it  is  only  when  individuals 
aggregate  themselves  into  communities  that  the  question 
of    the  purity  of   their  water  supply  becomes  a   serious 


WATER.  419 

question,  because  it  is  apt  to  become  polluted  by  the 
refuse  or  waste  from  their  own  bodies. 

The  city  of  Philadelphia  will  afford  a  striking  illus- 
tration of  this  point.  This  city  derives  its  water  sup- 
ply from  the  Schuylkill  river.  Fifty  years  ago  it  was 
unusually  pure  and  wholesome  water,  so  much  so  that 
masters  of  vessels  about  putting  to  sea  considered 
themselves  fortunate  if  they  could  fill  their  casks  with 
Schuylkill  water.  To-day  this  water  is  very  foul,  and 
not  fit  for  drinking  purposes,  because  large  cities  have 
gradually  grown  up  along  the  banks  of  this  river,  and 
these  cities  discharge  their  drainage,  or  waste,  into  the 
river.  Ancient  Rome  teaches  us  a  valuable  lesson  in 
water.  With  the  river  Tiber  flowing  through  the  heart 
of  the  city,  the  people  of  Rome  did  not  drink  its  water ; 
but,  going  miles  away  into  the  mountains,  pure  spring 
water  was  conveyed  in  fourteen  stupendous  aqueducts 
into  the  city,  and  this  was  in  the  days  when  Rome  was 
"Mistress   of  the  World." 

Those  who  live  in  cities  have  no  choice  but  to  drink 
the  water  that  is  furnished  to  them  by  the  authorities ; 
but  the  education  of  rjopular  opinion  to  the  importance 
of  pure  water  will  compel  the  authorities  to  furnish  it. 

The  water  supply  of  the  two  cities  referred  to, 
namely,  ancient  Rome  and  modern  Philadelphia,  will 
serve  as  types  to  illustrate  what  should  and  what 
should  not  be  supplied  to  the  people.  We  hear  a  great 
deal  of  talk  now  about  different  systems  for  the  artificial 
purification  of  foul  water;  while  this  may  be  necessary 
in  some  of  the  overcrowded  portions  of  central  Europe, 


420  HYGIENE. 

where,  owing  to  the  great  density  of  population,  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  find  water  that  has  not  been 
polluted  by  human  waste,  such  a  necessity  does  not 
confront  us  in  our  own  country.  There  is  as  yet  no 
city  in  the  United  States  within  reasonable  proximity 
to  which  pure  water  cannot  be  found;  and  it  should 
therefore  be  the  aim  of  the  authorities  not  to  seek  for 
some  artificial  system  of  purification,  but  to  look  for  a 
source  of  supply  that  will  furnish  a  water  already 
naturally  pure  and  beyond  the  liability  of  contami- 
nation. 

Even  though  water  may  not  be  contaminated  by  the 
germs  of  any  particular  disease,  yet  if  polluted  by 
organic  refuse  it  may  be  the  means  of  causing  much 
ill-health.  It  is  related  of  a  gentleman  and  his  wife 
that  for  months  both  had  suffered  with  dyspepsia,  head- 
aches, backaches,  muscular  pains  and  general  languor, 
and  that  they  regained  their  health  upon  abandoning 
drinking  water  from  the  family  well,  which  they  sup- 
posed to  be  of  excellent  quality,  but  which  was  found, 
upon  examination,  to  be  badly  polluted  by  drainage 
from  an  adjacent  farmyard. 

Let  us  divide  water  into  four  classes: 

1.  Rain  Water.  Under  which  is  included  all  water 
deposited  from  the  atmosphere,  as  rain,  hail,  snow, 
dew  or  frost. 

2.  Surface  Water.  All  collections  of  water  in 
free  contact  with  the  air,  as  lakes  and  seas. 

3.  Subsoil  Water.  Water  at  moderate  depth 
below  the  surface,   not   in   free   contact  with  the  atmos- 


WATER.  421 

phere,  and  derived  in  large  part  from  the  rain  or  sur- 
face water  of  the  district. 

4.  Deep  Water.  Water  accumulated  at  consider- 
able depth  below  the  surface,  and  from  which  the  sub- 
soil water  of  the  district  is  excluded  by  impermeable 
strata. 

Dr.  Henry  Leffmann,  an  eminent  authority  on  the 
subject,  concludes  that  while  rain  water  is  theoreti- 
cally the  most  pure,  yet  it  is  practically  unavailable, 
and  often  unsafe. 

Subsoil  and  surface  waters  offer  the  most  agreeable 
and  uniform  source,  but  require  careful  protection  and 
constant  analytical  control  to  prevent  disease-producing 
action.  The  most  unexceptionable  sources,  from  a 
hygienic  point  of  view,  are  the  true  deep  waters,  rep- 
resenting as  they  do  masses  of  water  that  have 
passed  through  an  enormous  distance  of  soil  and  have 
long  since  lost  any  contamination. 

In  conclusion,  let  me  give  you  the  eulogy  of  water 
that  was  uttered  some  years  ago  by  the  late  Hon. 
Emory  Storrs,  the  distinguished  Chicago  lawyer. 
When  sitting  around  a  wine  table  with  a  number  of 
legal  friends,  he  insisted  on  drinking  iced  water. 
They  taunted  him  for  his  abstemiousness,  saying, 
' 'What  is  there  in  water?  You  can  say  nothing  for 
it."     Picking  up  his  glass,  he  exclaimed: 

"How  do  you  expect  to  improve  upon  the  bev- 
erage furnished  by  nature?  Here  it  is — Adam's  ale— 
about  the  only  gift  that  has  descended  undeiiled  from 
the   Garden   of   Eden!      Nature's    common    carrier— not 


422  HYGIENE. 

created  in  the  rottenness  of  fermentation,  not  distilled 
over  guilty  fires !  Virtues  and  not  vices  are  its  com- 
panions. Does  it  cause  drunkenness,  disease,  death, 
cruelty  to  women  and  children?  Will  it  place  rags  on 
the  person,  mortgages  on  the  stock,  farm  and  furniture? 
Will  it  consume  wages  and  income  in  advance,  and  ruin 
men  in  business?     No! 

' '  But  it  floats  in  white  gossamer  clouds  far  up  in  the 
quiet  summer  sky,  and  hovers  in  dreamy  mist  over  the 
merry  faces  of  all  our  sparkling  lakes.  It  veils  the 
woods  and  hills  of  earth's  landscaj)es  in  a  purple 
haze,  where  filmy  lights  and  shadows  drift  hour  after 
hour.  It  piles  itself  in  tumbled  masses  of  cloud-domes 
and  thunder-heads,  draws  the  electric  flash  from  its 
mysterious  hiding-places,  and  seams  and  shocks  the 
wide  air  with  vivid  lines  of  fire.  It  is  carried  by  the 
winds,  and  falls  in  rustling  curtains  of  liquid  drapery 
over  all  the  thirsty  woods  and  fields,  and  fixes  in  God's 
mystic  Eastern  heavens  His  beautiful  bow  of  promise, 
glorified  with  a  radiance  that  seems  reflected  out  of 
heaven  itself. 

"  It  gleams  in  the  frost  crystals  of  the  mountain  tops 
and  the  dews  of  the  valleys.  It  silently  creeps  up  to 
each  leaf  in  the  myriad  forests  of  the  world  and  tints 
each  fruit  and  flower.  It  is  here  in  the  grass  blades 
of 'the  meadows,  and  there  where  the  corn  waves  its 
tassels  and  the  wheat  is  billowing!  It  gems  the  depths 
of  the  desert  with  the  glad  green  oasis,  winds  in  oceans 
round  the  whole  earth,  and  roars  its  hoarse,  eternal 
anthems  on  a  hundred  thousand  miles  of  coast ! 


WATER.  423 

"  It  claps  its  hands  in  the  flashing  wave-crests  of  the 
sea,  laughs  in  the  little  rapids  of  the  brooks,  kisses 
the  dripping,  moss-covered,  old  oaken  well  buckets 
in  a  countless  host  of  happy  homes ! 

"  See  these  pieces  of  cracked  ice,  full  of  prismatic 
colors,  clear  as  diamonds !  Listen  to  their  fairy  tinkle 
against  the  brimming  glass — that  sweetest  music  in  all 
the  world  to  one  half -fainting  with  thirst!  And  so, 
in  the  language  of  that  grand  old  man,  Gough,  I  ask 
you,  brothers  all,  would  you  exchange  that  sparkling 
glass  of  water  for  alcohol,  the  drink  of  the  very  devil 
himself?" 


QUESTIONS    FOR    REVIEW. 

544.  From  what  must  we  conclude  that  God  intends  us  to  use  water 
freely  ? 

545.  What  of  water  as  an  agency  for  the  transmission  of  disease  ? 

546.  Is  clear,  sparkling  water  always  pure  ? 

547.  What  of  the  water  supply  of  ancient  Rome  ? 

548.  Give  typical  examples  of  pure  and  impure  water. 

549.  Is  it  possible  to  procure  pure  water  for  city  use? 

550.  What  of  water  polluted  by  organic  refuse? 

551.  Into  what  four  classes  will  you  divide  water? 

552.  What  are  the  best  sources  of  water  supply  ? 

553.  How  did  Emory  Storrs  eulogize  water  ? 


INDEX. 


Absorption 141 

Abstemiousness 394 

Adam  and  Eve,  Forbidden  to  Eat 

of  the  Tree  of  Knowledge  .     .         2 
Adam  and  Eve  in  an  Open  Garden      3 

Air 75 

'  Amount  of,  Necessary      .     .     101 

Cellar 122 

Eating  ........     393 

'  Expired,  a  Poison  ....       90 

'  Ground 122 

'  Impure,  and  Consumption  .     115 

'  Night 117 

'Vesicles 88 

Albuminous  Food 157 

Alcohol 348-350 

"      Abuse  of 352-354 

"       as  a  Drug 353 

"      as  a  Tonic 370 

"  Habit,  How  to  Break  tbe  375 
"  Influence  of,  on  the  Blood  3G8 
"  Influence  of,  on  the  Brain  357 
"  Influence  of,  on  the  Heart  302 
"  Influence  of,  on  the  Liver  300 
"  Influence  of,  on  the  Lungs  359 
"  Influence  of,  on  the  Ner- 
vous System  .  .  .  302 
"  Influence  of,  on  the  organs  354 
"  Influence  of,  on  the  Stom- 
ach   355 

"      in  Old  Age 372 

"       Most  Dangerous  Form  of 

Use  of 354 

Alimentary  Canal    .     .    .     .127-131 


PAGE 

Anatomy,  Familiarity  with  .  .  14 
Anger,  Evil  Effects  of  ....  386 
Animal  Life,  Functions  of    .     .       52 

Aorta 07 

Apoplexy 357 

Appetite,  Significance  of  .  .  .  155 
Aristocracy  of  Health  ....     412 

Arteries 03-70 

"       Division  of 68 

Artificial  Disposal  of  "Waste  .  .  10 
Artificiality,  Humanity  Tends  to     12 

Assimilation 173 

Athletes,     Professional,     Short 

Life  of 257 

Athletes,  Sudden  Death  of  249  255 
Athletic  Contests  ....  251-260 
Atmosphere,  Carbonic  Acid  in  .  100 
Stuffy,    Ingredients 

and  Harmfulnesa  of  ...     .      95 

Backbone 179 

Bath,  an  Ideal 309 

Bathing 299 

"       Best  Time  for  .     .     .     .  30C> 

"       Decadence  of,  in  Koine  302 

"      Habit  of 390 

"      Out-d •,  Rules  for.     .  312 

"       Popularity  of,  in  Ancient 

Koine 300 

"      Sea 310 

Bath-room,  a  Model     .     .     .     .  311 

"       "     Ventilation  of  the    .  115 

Baths,  Cold :;07-30S 

"       Cool 307 


426 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

"       Hot 307 

"          "   and  Rheumatism     .  307 

Baths  of  Diocletian      ....  300 
"      of  Rome,  Magnificence  of 

the 300 

"       Temperate 307 

"       Tepid 307 

"       Turkish 309 

"       Warm 307 

Beans,  Nourishing  food    .     .     .  163 
Bed-room,  Foul,  and  Consump- 
tion       115 

Bed-room,  Ventilation  of  the    .  114 
Bible,    the,   as  a   Text-book  of 

Hygiene 404 

Bicycling 270 

Bile 136 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta     ...  93 
Blisters,  Mechanism  of  Produc- 
tion of 32 

Blood 64 

"     Circulation  of  the    .     .    83-252 

"     Corpuscles,  Red  ....  64 

"     Corpuscles,  White   ...  73 
"     Good,    Dependent    Upon 

Good  Digestion    .     .     .  148 
"     Poisoning      and      Dirty 

Teeth 315 

"    Purification  of  the  .     .      78-79 
"     Route   of  the  Circulation 

of  the 67-68 

"     Vessels 63 

"     Vessels,   Nervous  Control 

of  the 54 

Boat  Clubs 268 

Boat  Racing 268 

Bones 177 

Bowels,  The 173 

Braces,  Shoulder 336 

Breath,  Bad,  Cause  of  ...     .  389 

Breathing  Through  the  Nose    .  388 

Broad-shoulders,  Exercise  for   .  277 

Bronchial  Tubes 87 

Bronchitis 87 


PAGE 

Calcutta,  Black  Hole  of    .     .     .      93 
Calisthenics     .......     271 

Camaldolese  Monks      ....     400 

Candy 392 

Capillaries. 63-70 

''  Arteries    Terminate 

in 68 

"  Pulmonary     ...       88 

Carbo-hydrates    ......     158 

Carbonic     Acid,    Fatal     Effects 

of 93-95 

Carbonic  Acid  in  Atmosphere  .     100 

"  "     Production  of     .       76 

Carlisle  and  Indigestion    .     .     .     146 

Cell,  The 166-168 

Cellar  Air .     122 

Cellar,  the  Average,  a  Hot-lied 

of  Disease 120-122 

Cerebellum 34,  56-57 

Cerebrum 33,  55-57 

"       Life   Possible   Without 

the 34 

Chapped  Hands,  Cause  of    .     .     394 

Cheerfulness 393 

Chevreul  a  Centenarian    .     .     .     210 

Chew  Thoroughly 388 

Chicory 348 

Chiton,  The 319 

Chyle 137 

"    Empties  into  a  Vein      .     .     141 

Chyme 134 

Circulation  of  the  Blood  .  63,  83,  252 
"  "         "       Nervous 

Control  of 72 

Circulation  of  the  Blood,  Rapid- 
ity of  71-72 

Circulation  of  the  Blood,  Route 

of 67-68 

Circulation,  Municipal      ...       83 
Cities,  Disposal  of  Waste  in      .         9 

Cleanliness 299-306 

"         as  a  Habit      .    .    .    385 

"  as  a  "  Lost  Art "  .     .     303 

Clothing 318 


INDEX. 


427 


PAGE 

Clothing,  Airing  the    ....     393 
"       Not  Intended  in  the  De- 
sign of  Health 3 

Clubs,  Boat 268 

"       Indian 285 

Coca 348 

Cocoa 348 

Coffee 348,  381 

"  Cold,  Taking "      .     .      37,  105,  172 

Collars 328 

Colon 132 

Combustion,  Mechanism  of  .     .      76 

Condiments 347 

Consumption    and    Foul     Bed- 
rooms       115 

Consumption,  Prevention  of  274-275 

Contagion 237 

Contagious  Diseases,   Avoidance 

of 240 

Contagious  Diseases,  Cause   of  .     231 
"  "  Conditions 

Necessary  for 234 

Contagious   Diseases,   Immunity 

from 235 

Convulsion,  Mechanism  of  a     .     174 

Cooking      157-163 

Co-ordination  of  Muscular  Move- 
ments       57 

Cord,  Spinal 59 

Corns 331 

Corpuscles,  Red  Blood      ...       64 
"              "        "    Carry  Oxy- 
gen      82 

Corpuscles,  Tactile 32 

"  White  Blood      .     .      73 

Corsets 333 

Cosmetics 314 

Coughing 92 

CbeatoB,  Health  the  Design  of 

The 2 

Crying 93 

Customs 384 

Cuticle 31 

Cycle,  Natural,  of  Organic  Matter       5 


PAGE 

Cycle  of  Oxygen 81 

"       Unnatural,     of      Organic 
Matter 9 

Death  and  Sleep 189 

"      is  Inevitable      ....     186 

Death,  Natural 189 

"  Premature,  Cause  of .  .  3 
"  Sudden,  of  Athletes  .  .  249 
"       What      Occurs     at     the 

Moment  of 187 

Decay,  What  is  it? 188 

Definition  of  Hygiene  ....        3 

De  Lesseps 212 

Depew,  Hon.  Chauncey  M.  .  .  212 
Dermis  or  Cutis  vera  ....  31 
Development,  Motion  Necessary 

for 293 

Diaphragm 90 

Diet,  Mixed    .......     159 

Digestion 124 

"  Details  of  .  .  127-128 
"  Essentials  for  .  .  .  126 
"  Heat  Necessary  for  .  134 
"        Influence     of     Nerves 

upon 133 

Digestion  is   a  Chemical  Solu- 
tion     125 

Digestion,   Perfect,    an    Uncon- 
scious Act 146 

Digestion,  Types  of  ....  148 
Diocletian,  Baths  of     ....     300 

Dipsomania 366 

I  disease,  Acute 227 

Disease,  Acute,  Fatality  of  .     .     229 
Disease  and  Intemperance     .     , 
"        and    Premature     Death, 

cause  of 3 

Disease    as  a    Punishment    for 

Sin 182  185 

Disease  as  a  Visitation  of  Divine 

Providence 185 

Disease,  Can  We  Ivoid    .    .    .     182 
Chronic     .     .    227-228,  238 


428 


INDEX. 


Disease,  Chronic,  Can  be  Con- 
trolled      229 

Disease  Denned 226 

"       Germs 231 

"       Germs,  Vitality  of   .     .     241 
"       Humanity,  as    a  whole, 
Responsible  for 5 

Disease  is  Unavoidable  in  many 
Cases 185 

Disease,  Individual  Responsibil- 
ity for     4 

Disease,   Mysterious  Origin    of, 
Explained 122 

Disease  of  the  Heart  and  Exces- 
sive Exercise 251 

Diseases,  Acute,  Non-contagious     238 
"        Contagious,    Avoidance 
of 240 

Diseases,  Contagious,  cause  of  .     231 
"        Hereditary     ....     218 

Disinfection 241 

Disposal  of  Waste  from  Lower 
Animals 7 

Disposal  of  Waste  in  Cities  .     .        9 

Disputes,  Avoid 387 

Dissecting-room,  In  the    ...       30 

Dissection  necessary  for  a  Knowl- 
edge of  Anatomy       ....       30 

Distilled  Spirits 349 

Divine  Providence,  Disease  as  a 
Visitation  of 185 

Draughts 103 

Draughts,  American  Fear  of    .     108 
"        How  to  Avoid  the  Evil 
Effects  of 108-109 

Draughts  not  Injurious  to  Those 


in  Robust  Health 
Dress 

"    of  Eastern  Nations 

"    of  the  Egyptians  . 

"  of  the  Grecians  . 
Driving  as  an  Exercise 
Drunkards,  Offspring  of 
Dumb-bells,  the  Use  of 


104 
318 
322 
319 
319 
269 
367 
285 


Dyspepsia 145-147 

"        Not  to  be  made  Fun  of    413 
Dyspepsia,  "  Stuffing,"a  Cause  of    150 
Dyspeptic,    Bill     of    Fare     for 
the 161-162 

Eating  for  Life 6 

"      Rules  for  Healthful  .     .     149 

"      Slowly,  Importance  of  149,  383 

Eden,  Garden  of,  Lesson  of  the        8 

Educated  Invalid 411 

Education  and  Hygiene  .  .12,  409 
"  The  Purpose  of  .     .     409 

Electricity    and    the    Nervous 

System 48' 

Electricity  for  Heating  Houses  111 
Elements  of  the  Human  Body  .  165 
Emotions,  Influence  of  .  .  .  53 
Engineer,  An  Educated   .     .     .     411 

Epidermis .       31 

Excess  Abhorrent  to  Nature  247-259 

"      Avoid  the  Habit  of  .     .     388 

Excretion   .    .     .     129,165-169-173 

Excretory  System 170 

Exercise,  Excessive,  and  Heart 

Disease 251-259 

Exercise  for  Health  246-257-270-271 
"  for  Muscles  of  the  Back  278 
"       for  Muscular  Strength     246 

"       Injurious 290 

"       Means  Motion     .     .     .     245 

"       Mental 293-297 

"       of  the  Lungs  .     .     .  274-275 

"       Passive        269 

"       Physical 245 

Exercising  for  Health  .  .  249-260 
"  for  Strength     ...     249 

Expiration,  Forced ....  274-275 
Expired  Air  a  Poison  ....  96 
Eye-brows,  Function  of  .  .  .  37 
Eye-lashes,  Function  of    .     .     .      37 


Fat,  Digestion  of      .     . 
"    Foods  That  Make 


.134-135 
. 159-161 


INDEX. 


429 


Fats 

Feet,  Warm  .... 
Field,  David  Dudley  . 
Finger-nails,  Clean  .  . 
"  "  Dirty  .  . 
Fish,  Hon.  Hamilton  . 
Flesh,  Foods  That  Make 

Fly  on  the  Nose 

Food 

"     Albuminous    .... 

"     Amount  of,  Necessary  . 

"      Classification  of  .     .     .  V. 

"     Nitrogenous     .     .     .     .  U 

"     Value,  Diagram  of  .     . 

"     Variety  <>f,  Necessary  . 

Foods,  Inorganic     .... 

"     That  Make  Fat  .     .     . 

"     That  Make  Muscle  .     . 

Foot-ball 

Frugality 

Frying 

"      Scientific      .... 
Functions,     Integrity     of    all, 

Necessary 

Furnace,  Hot  air,  and  Ventila 

tion 


159 


PAGE 

158 

329 
212 
315 
390 
211 
-161 
49 
157 
157 
157 
158 
159 
100 
149 
158 
161 
161 
283 
391 
103 
104 


17 
111 


Ganglia 55-60 

Ganglionic  Nervous  System 

51,55,00-01 
<  tardea  of  Eden,  Lesson  of  the  .        3 

Garters 33G 

Gas,  Illuminating s'-! 

Germs,  Dead,  Harmless    .     .     .  •  242 

"        of  Disease 231 

"  of  Disease,  Vitality  of  .  241 
Gladstone,  Hon.  W..E.  .  .  .  212 
Gland,  Definition  of  a  .  .  .  128-129 
Glands,  Sebaceous,  Function  of  37 
"  Sweat,  Orifices  of  .  .  35 
Glottis,  an  Organ  of  Voice  .  .  97 
God  Establishes  Natural  Laws.  1 
"  the  Author  of  all  Life  .  .  188 
Grey  Nervous  Tissue  ....      56 


PAGE 

Growth  and  Nutrition,  Control 

of 52 

Gymnasiums,  Dangers  of  .     .     .     250 

Habits 384 

Hair 37 

"    and  Scalp,  care  of  the    .     .     315 
Hanging,   Mechanism  of   Death 

by 58 

Hardening,  the  Process  of    .     .     109 

Haschisch 348 

Hats 325 

Hat,  Raising  the,  in  Salute  .     .     392 
Headache,     Persistent,      Signifi- 
cance of 297 

Head  Covering 325 

Health  and  the  Natural  Code  .  12 
"  "  Primitive  Living  .  4 
"  Aristocracy  of  .  '  .  .  .  412 
"  Education  and  ....  409 
"      Exercise  for      .     .     .240-271 

Health  in  Norway 4 

"      Natural  Laws  Provide  for        2 
"      Religion  and      ....     399 

"      Society  and 406 

"      the       Design      of      The 

Creator     2 

Health,  The  New  Gospel  of .    .    403 
Healthy  Functions,  Unconscious- 
ness of 147 

Healthy  Ignoramus      ....     411 
"        Persons,  Parity  of     .     .        18 
Heart     Disease     and     Excessive 

Exercise 251 

Heart,  Fatty  Degeneration  of  the, 
Caused  by  Alcohol    ....     362 

Heart,  The 03-60 

"  "  as  a  Muscle  ...  42 
"  "  Contractions  of  .  .  42 
"  "  Nervous  ( Sontrol  of.  7-_! 
"  "  Valves  of  ....  253 
Heat,  Animal,  Mechanism  of  its 

Production 36 

Heat,  Foods  that  Produce    .    .     159 


430 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Heat  of  Body,  How  Produced   .      82 

Heating 100 

"  by  Electricity  .  .  .  .  Ill 
"  "  Hot-air  Furnace  .  .  Ill 
"       "   Steam      .     .     .       111-112 

Hemerobaptists 299 

Hereditary  Diseases      ....     218 

Heredity 197 

"        versus  Ventilation    .     .     115 

Hiccough 93 

Himation,  The 319 

Holmes,  Dr.  O.  W 212 

House,    English,   Average  Tem- 
perature of 107 

Houses,  Artificial  Productions  .        3 
"       Placarding  Infected .     .     242 

Human  Body,  The 14 

"               "         as  a  Machine       19 
"               "         as  the   Dwell- 
ing of  the  Soul 26 

Human   Body,   The,    Compared 

to  the  United  States      ...       15 
Human  Body,  The,  Elements  of    165 
"  "  Functions  of 

Systems  of 16 

Human    Body,   The,     Why    It 

Should  be  Protected      ...      25 
Human  Machine,  a  Perfect  One      24 
"       Waste    Returns    to   the 

Earth 6 

Humanity,  as  a  Whole,  Respons- 
ible for  Disease 5 

Humanity,  Most  Perfect  Type  of    296 
"         Tends  to  Artificiality      12 
Hunger   not    to    be   thoroughly 

satisfied 149 

Hurry  and  Worry 385 

Hygeia  as  a  Conductress  .     .     .     225 
Hygiene,  a  Necessity   ....       12 
"  among  the  Jews      .     .     299 

"  an  Unneeded  Science  3 
"  and  Wisdom  ....  211 
"  Definition  of  ...  .  3 
"        General  Consideration     182 


Hygiene,  The  Foundation  of 
Hygienic  Philosophy  .     .     . 


PAGE 

185 
401 


Impressions,  Where  felt  ...  33 
Incubation,  Periods  of .  .  .  .  415 
Indestructibility       of      Organic 

Matter 1 

Indian  Clubs 285 

Indigestion 145-147 

Individual     Responsibility      for 

Disease 4 

Insanity  and  Intemperance  .  .  359 
Insensible  Perspiration  ...  35 
Inspiration,  Forced  .  .  .  274-275 
Intelligence,  Seat  of  the  .  .  33,  55-* 
Intemperance  and  Insanity  .  .  359 
"  The  Surest  Way  to 

Avoid 381 

Intestines,  The,  as  an  Excretory 

Organ 173 

Involuntary  Actions,  How  Per- 
formed          51-55 

Involuntary  Motions,  Origin  of .  34 
Isolation 241 

Japan,  Hot  Bathing  in     .     .     .     307 

Jews  and  Hygiene 299 

Joints 180 

Kidney  Disease  and  Meat  Eat- 
ing   172 

Kidneys  and  Skin,  Relation  Be- 
tween    172 

Kidneys  and  Sweat  Glands,  Re- 
lation Between 37 

Kidneys  as  Scavengers     .     .     .  171 

Kissing,  The   Habit    ....  392 

Knowledge,  The  Tree  of  .     .     .  2 

Lacteals 141-143 

Larynx 87,  97 

Laughing 92 

Laxative,  Nature's 137 

Leggings 334 


INDEX. 


431 


Page 

Life,  Definition  of 26 

"      Eating  for 6 

"  God  the  Author  of  all  .  .  188 
"  Immutable  Law  of  .  .  .  9 
"  Motion  Makes  ....  40 
"  of  Disease  Germs  .  .  .  241 
"     Oxygen  a  Prime  Necessity 

of 75 

"  Phenomena  of  ...  .  165 
"     Phenomena   of,  Dependent 

upon  Nerves    ....       49 

"     Kail  read  of 221 

"     The  Staff' of  Life.    ...      75 

"     Two  Journeys  Through    .     221 

Liver,  Function  of  the      .     .     .     136 

Lives,  Natural 2 

Lungs  as  Scavengers     ....     170 
Lungs  Compared  to  Bunches  of 

Grapes 89 

Lungs,  Exercise  of  the     .     .  274-275 
"       Location  and  Anatomy  of 

86-87 
"       the  Organs  of  Respiration     78 

Lymph 143 

"      Corpuscles 143 

Lymphatic  Glands 143 

Lymphatics 143 

Machine,  Definition  of  a  .     .     .  20 

Man  .is  a  Machine   .     .     .     .     .  19 

"     as  an  Animal 27 

"     Definition  of 28 

"     Different  From  Other  Ani- 
mals       28 

"  is  an  Organic  Body  ...  1 
"     learns   a   Lesson   from    the 

Lower  Animals    ....  28 

"     What  is 27 

Manning,  Cardinal 212 

Materialism  and   Religion     .     .  20 

Matter,  What  is  it L86 

Meals,  Do  Not  Eat  Between    .     .  1~>4 

"       Hours  for 153 

Meat-eaters  and  Kidney  Disease  172 


PAGE 

Medulla  Oblongata  ....     56-58 
Memory,  Development  of  the    .     295 

Mental  Exercise 293-297 

"       Monotony 296 

"  Occupation  Varied  .  .  296 
Mind,  a  Product  of  the  Body  .  409 
"  and  Body.  .  .  .  .  411-412 
"  Proper  Development  of  the  295 
"  Special  Development  of  the  295 
"  Use  Necessary  for  Develop- 
ment of     ...     .  293-294 

"      What  is 410 

Moderation,  The  Law  of .  .  .  247 
Monotony  of  the  Mind  ...  296 
Mortality,  Comparative  .  .  .  399 
Moses  as  a  Sanitarian  ....  299 
Motion,  Involuntary,  Origin  of  34 
"  makes  Life  ....  40 
"  means  Exercise  .  .  .  245 
Municipal  Circulation  ....       83 

Murderer's,  Story 377 

Muscles 40 

"      Composition  of     .     .     .       42 
"      Contraction  and  Relaxa- 
tion of 41 

"      Involuntary,  Structure  of     44 
"      Nourishment  of    .     .     .       44 

"      Number  of 43 

"      of  the  Back,  Exercise  for 

the 278 

"      Shape  of 43 

"      Voluntary  and   Involun- 
tary       42 

"     Voluntary,  Structure  of      43 
Muscular  Movements,  Co-ordina- 
tion of    57 

Muscular    Strength,     Excessive, 

is  Injurious 217 

Muscular  Strength,  Exercise  for    246 
"  "  Foods     that 

make  ,    .     161 

"  "  Pugilists    :l- 

Types  of 248 

Mustard 381 


432 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Nails,  Biting  the,  as  a  Habit     .     385 
"       Finger  and  Toe.     ...       38 

Narcotics 348 

Natural  Code  and  Health      .     .       12 
"         Cycle  of  Organic  Matter        5 

"        Death 189 

"         Disposal  of  Waste  from 

Lower  Animals  .  .  7 
"  Laws,  God  Establishes  1 
"        Laws  Provide  for  Health       2 

"         Lives 2 

"        Ventilation     ....     102 

Nature's  Laxative 137 

"        Stimulant 70 

Nerves,  Complete  Circuit  of  .  .  59 
"  Defective,  Kesult  of  .  40 
"  Function  of  ...  .  44 
"  Phenomena  of  Life,  De- 
pendent upon  ...  49 
"  Influence  of,  upon  Diges- 
tion       133 

"        Sciatic 59 

"        Spinal 59 

"        Vaso-motor      ....       54 
Nervous  Control  of  Blood  Vessels     54 
"        Control   of  Heart    and 

Circulation  ....       72 

"        System 48 

"        System  and  Telephone  48-49 
"        System.  Sympathetic    51-01 
"        System,  Tissue  of   .     .       50 
Nervous  Systems,  Connection  Be- 
tween   52 

Newman,  Cardinal 212 

"Night  Air" 117 

Nitrogen  a  Diluent  of  Oxygen  .       78 
Nitrogenous  Food    ....  157-158 

Waste 172 

Norway,  Health  and  Morality  in        4 
Nose,  Breathing  Through  the    .       37 

"       Fly  on  the 49 

Nutrition  and  Growth,  Control 

of 52 

'         Mechanism  of  .     .     .       70 


PAGE 

Oat-Meal 395 

Occupations,   Comparative   Mor- 
tality of 399 

Ocean  Bathing 310 

Oesophagus 130 

Oinomania 300 

Opium 349 

Organic  Body,  Man  is  an  .  .  1 
"        Matter,  Indestructibility 

of 1 

Organic    Matter,  Natural    Cycle 

of 5 

Organic  Matter,  Origin  of    .     .         1 
"              "        Unnatural    Cy- 
cle of      9- 

Organic  Refuse,  and  Sewers  .  .  11 
Origin  of  Organic  Matter  .  .  1 
Ox,  Dr.,  on  Oxygen      ....       70 

Oxygen 75 

"       Cycle  of 81 

"       Fatal   Effects   of    Defi- 
ciency of .     .     .     93-94-95 

Oxygen,  Fear  of 78 

"         Necessary     Proportions 

of 90 

Oxygen,    Necessity    of,   to     the 

Whole  Body 82 

Oxygen,   Pure,   Too   Strong  for 

Respiration 78 

Oxygen  Supports  Combustion  .  70 
"  The  Natural  Purifier  .  79 
"        Transported      by       Red 

Blood  Corpuscles       .       82 
Ozone 118 

Palsy,  Scrivener's 201 

Pancreas 130 

Paradise,  The  Lesson  of  .     .     .  2 

Parents,  Duty  of 414 

Peas  Very  Nourishing      ...  103 

Pedometer 205 

Pepper 381 

Perspiration,   Amount  of,  given 

off .  37 


IXDEX. 


483 


PAGE 

Perspiration,  Composition  of     .       53 
"  Insensible   ...       35 

Phagocytosis 235 

Pharynx 130 

Physical  Culture     .    .     .     .245-270 
"  "        Excessive  .     .     259 

"  "         Safety      Valve 

of  258-259 

Physiology,  Familiarity  With  .  14 
Plants,  Growing  in  Bed-rooms  117 
Plumbing,  Design  of  Good  .  .  115 
Pope  Leo  XIII.,  as  a  Type  of 

Vital  Strength 248 

Potatoes 162 

Premature  Death,  Cause  of  .  .  3 
Primitive  Living  and  Health    .        4 

Protoplasm 166 

Pugilists  as  Types  of  Muscular 

Strength      ." 248 

Pulmonary  Capillaries      ...       88 
"           Vesicles     ....       88 
Pulverization  Necessary   for  Di- 
gestion     125 

(Quarrels,  Avoid 387 

Pacing,  Boat 268 

Kailroad  of  Life 221 

"       Travelling  as  an  Exer- 
cise      269 

Bed  Blood  Corpuscles  ....      64 

Begularity 394-402 

Reflex  Actions 55 

"      Movements,  Illustrated    .      51 

Beligion  and  Hygiene      .     .     .     299 

"  "     Health    ....     399 

"  «     Materialism      .     .       20 

Religious  Communities    .     .     .     401 

Respiration 75 

"  is     Both     Voluntary 

and  Involuntary  .     .     .     '.     .       89 

Respiration,  Definition  of     .     .      79 

Respiration,  Exciting  Cause  of .  91-92 

Respiration,  Function  of       .     .       78 


Respiration  Internal  .     .     . 
"  Mechanism  of  . 

"  Necessity  of 

"  of  Vegetable  Life 

Rheumatism  and  Hot  Baths 

Ribs 

Riding  as  an  Exercise  .     . 

Romans,  Clean  Skin  of  the 

Rowing  as  an  Exercise     . 

Running  Up-stairs  .     .     . 


PAGE 

80 

91 

90 

80 

307 

179 

267 

305 

268 

385 


Saliva,  Function  of      .     .     .  128-130 

Salt 159,381 

Sanitarian  of  To-day,  Lesson  of 

the 3 

Schools  as  Hot-beds  of  Disease  .    413 

Sciatica °9 

Sciatic  Nerves 59 

Scrivener's  Palsy 261 

Sea  Bathing 311 

Sebaceous  Glands,  Function  of  .  37 
Secretion,  Function  of.  .  .  .  129 
Sedatives,  Craving  of  Humanity 

for 349 

Self-control,  the  Habit  of  .  .  391 
Sewers  and  Organic  Refuse  .     .       11 

Shoes 330-332 

"    Ill-fitting 331 

Sickness  Defined  .....  226 
Sighing,  Mechanism  of  .  .  .  93 
Sin,  Disease  as  a  Punishment  for     185 

Skeleton,  The 177 

Skin       30 

"   and    Kidneys,    Relation    be- 
tween       172 

Skin,  Cleanliness    of    the,    and 

Health 305 

Skin,       Dirty,     and       Apparent 

Health 306 

Skin,  Excretory  Function  of     .     172 
"      Nerves  and   Blood-Veesela 

of  the ::- 

Skull,  The 180 


Sleep 


339 


434 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Sleep  and  Death 189 

"    Essentials  for 345 

"    and  Society 342 

Sleeplessness,  Significance  of  .  297 
Smells,  Bad,  How  Produced  .  36 
Sneezing,  Mechanism  of  .  .  .  92 
Snow,  Impurities  of     ...     .     393 

Soap 312 

Sobbing,  Mechanism  of  .  .  .  93 
Society  and  Health  ....  406 
Soul,    the     Human     Body     as 

Dwelling  Place  of  the        .     .       26 
Speech,  Organs  and  Production 

of 98 

Spinal  Column 59 

"       Cord 59 

"       Nerves 59 

Spirits,  Distilled 349 

Spitting,  The,  Habit    ....    389 

Sponges 313 

St.  Martin,  Alexis  ....  356 
Stand,  How  to,  Properly  .  .  262-263 
Standing  Erect,  the  Habit  of     .     390 

Statistics,  Vital 221-223 

Steam  for  Heating  Houses  .  111-112 
Stimulant,  the  Natural     ...       76 

Stimulants 347 

"  Craving  of  Humanity 

for 349 

Stimulants,  Definition  of .     .     .     348 

Stockings 329 

Stomach 131 

"  Digestion  in  the  .  .  132-133 
"  Muscular  Contraction  of  42 
"  Temperature  of  .  .  .  134 
Strength,  Exercising  for  .  .  .  249 
"  Muscular  ....  246 
"  «        Exercise    for  246 

"  "         Foods      that 

make 161 

Si  length,  Pugilists  as  Types  of    248 

Vital 246 

"             "    Pope  Leo  XIII. 
as  a  Type  of 248 


PAGE 

Strigillus,  the,  as  an  Instrument 

of  Cleanliness 305 

Sun-burn,  Mechanism   of      .     .       32 

Sunless  Air 122 

Sunshine,  Necessity  of     .     .     .     118 
Sweat  Glands  and  Kidneys,  Rela- 
tion Between 37 

Sweat  Glands,  Orifices  of . .    .     >       35 
Sympathetic     Nervous     System 

51-61 

Syringe,  Mechanism  of  a       .  253-254 

Tactile  Corpuscles 32 

"  Taking  Cold  "...      37, 105, 172 

Tea 381 

"    Chinese 349 

"  Paraguay 348 

Tea-tasters 295 

Teeth,  Care  of  the  .     .     .       314,389 
"       Dirty,  and  Blood  Poison- 
ing       315 

Teeth,  Uses  of  the 126 

Telephone,  The,  and  the  Nerves 

48-49 
Temper,  Controlling  the  .  .  .  386 
Temperance,  A  Lesson  in  .  .  302 
Temperature  of  the  Body,  How 

Eegulated 36 

Temperature     of      an     English 

House 107 

Thoracic  Duct 141 

Thought,  Seat  of     ...     .      33-55 

Tippling,  Constant 354 

Tobacco     .....    349, 394-395 

Toe-nails,  How  to  Trim  the      .     316 

"  Ingrowing,  Cause  of  .     332 

Trachea 87,97 

Tree  of  Knowledge      ....        2 

Tree  of  Life 2 

Turkish  Baths 309 

Underclothing 328 

Unnatural  Cycle  of  Organic  Mat- 
ter          9 


INDEX. 


435 


PAGE 

Valves  of  the  Heart    ....     253 

Yaso-motor  Nerves 54 

Vegetables,  Digestion  of  .     .  134—135 
Vegetation  and  Ventilation  .     .     117 

Veins 63-73 

"     Origin  of 68 

Ventilation 100 

"  and  Vegetation  .     .     117 

"  by  Hot  Air  Furnace     111 

"  by  Open  Fire  Place     110 

Ideal 110 

"  Natural     ....     102 

"  of  Bath-room    .     .     115 

"  of  Bed-room  ...     114 

"  versus  Heredity  .     .     115 

"  Window    ....     119 

Verne,  Jules,  on  Oxygen  ...       76 

Vinegar 381 

Vital  Force 187-190 

Vital   Force,  Transmission  of 

191-193 

Vital  Inheritance 193 

"      Organs,  Conscious  Action  of  258 
"      Statistics 221-223 


Vital  Strength,  Pope  Leo  XIII. 

as  a  Type  of 248 

Vocal  Cords 97 

Voice,  Organs  of 96 

Voluntary    Actions,   How    Per- 
formed           50-55 

Walking  as  an  Exercise  .     .     .     263 

"        Excessive  is  Injurious    266 

Wallis,  Admiral  Sir  Provo  .     .     212 

Waste,  Disposal  of,  in  Cities     .  9-10 

"       Human   Beturns   to    the 


Earth 

"      Natural  Disposal  of 

Water 

"     Artificial  Purification 
"     Divisions  of  .     .     . 
"    Drinking  as  a  Habit 
"      Storr's  Eulogy  of  . 

White  Blood  Corpuscles  . 

White  Nervous  Tissue 

Window  Ventilation    .     . 

Wise  Men  are  Sanitarians 

Yawning,  Mechanism  of  . 


of. 


6 

7 

418 

419 

420 

391 

421 

73 

56 

119 

211 

93 


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